Social policy

functionalist

• Fletcher - The introduction of the NHS, housing policies has helped the family perform its functions much better

• evaluation - not all family benefit equally from the policies

• donzelot - criticises this and argues that the state is interfering with family life

• examples of social policy - NHS - Supports family health so it can perform its functions (e.g. primary socialisation, economic support). Functionalists like Fletcher say policies help families function., education act - provides socialisation and skills for work

Marxist

• policies serve capitalism eg low state pensions

• Althusser - isa - policies act in an ideological way convincing us that society is fair eg minimum wage - has only been won through class struggle

• evaluation - can be criticised by functionalists for being overly negative and ignoring the benefits of policy

• examples of social policy - NHS welfare benefits - maintains workforce health and reproduction of labour - serves capitalism not family

• child support agency - Makes working-class men responsible for financial upkeep – protects state resources, not family wellbeing.

radical feminism

• Policies maintain women’s subordinate position and reflect patriarchy

• Land- courts assume women should have custody of children in divorce cases as they are seen as natural carers

• Leonard- maternity leave benefits women but assumes it’s the women's responsibility

• Policies regarding tax & benefits, childcare and caring for the sick & elderly are often at a cost to women. Universal credit is only paid to one person in a household, which can lead to financial abuse in coercive relationships

• Evaluation- Liberal Feminists argue that policies such as Equal pay, divorce laws & shared parental leave help women and do not aid patriarchy 

• examples of social policy -Equal Pay Act (1970), Sex Discrimination Act (1975), 30 hours free childcare help women access work.

the new right

• Argue social policies have weakened the nuclear family.

• Think welfare policies create dependency culture and encourage lone-parent families.

• Murray (1989): welfare encourages irresponsible behaviour (e.g. having children outside marriage).

• Want policies that support traditional values, e.g. tax breaks for married couples.

• they think - family is: In decline. Under threat. Fragmenting. Breaking down.

• This view has been put forward by the New Right since the 1980’s and they look at this evidence to support their views:

Increase in: Lone-parent families. Fatherless families. Divorce rates. Cohabitation. Gay and lesbian couples. Decrease in the nuclear family

caused by: A breakdown in traditional family values

• Welfare state

• Feminism has devalued marriage, childbearing etc.

• Increased sexual permissiveness

• Greater tolerance of ‘homosexuality as an alternative to heterosexual marriage’

• consequences of this:

• The “fragmented family” is no longer performing its functions effectively

• Inadequate socialisation (lack of male role model)

• Educational underachievement

• Increase in Anti-social behaviour & crime

• Welfare dependency

Solutions:

• A return to traditional family values e.g. life-long marriage

• A change in government policy to support and maintain 2 parent families e.g. tax breaks for married couples

• Reduction in welfare benefits

• examples of social policy - ✅ Support policies that:

  • Encourage marriage (e.g. married couples tax allowance).

  • Reduce welfare dependency.

  • Promote self-reliance and traditional values.

  • Policies the New Right Oppose:

    • Welfare benefits – encourage lone parenthood, especially single mothers.

    • Divorce Reform Act (1969) – makes it too easy to leave marriage.

    • Same-Sex Marriage (2014) – undermines traditional nuclear family.

    • No-fault divorce (2022) – makes family breakup even easier.

Criticism: Blames the victims (e.g. lone mothers), ignores the benefits of diversity, assumes nuclear family is best.

new right - families without fathers (Denis and Erdos)

• Increasing no’s of children are born outside marriage and raised by single mothers

• This places children at a disadvantage: poorer health, lower educational achievement, 

• Boys: grow up without  the expectation that adulthood involves responsibilities for a wife & children…….Results in:  irresponsible, immature, anti-social young men

• Families without fathers are not an adequate alternative to the Nuclear family

• Families are not just changing, they are deteriorating

new right - Charles Murray

• Uses the concept of Underclass to describe unemployed, impoverished, inner-city working class, linked to a sub-culture of social decay, promiscuity and illegitimacy, fatherless children, criminal and drug-abusing young males roaming housing estates!

postmodernist view

• here is no longer a single dominant family type (e.g. nuclear).

• People now have more freedom to choose the kind of family they want — this is called family diversity.

• Traditional structures and norms (e.g. marriage, gender roles) have weakened.

• 📘 Stacey (1998) – "Divorce-Extended Family"

  • In postmodern society, families are more fluid and based on choice.

  • She studied women in California who formed "divorce-extended families" — family networks based on divorce and remarriage (e.g. ex-wives helping each other raise children).

  • Shows how women are the drivers of change and create family types that work for them.

  📘 Giddens (1992) – "Pure Relationship"

  • In postmodern society, relationships are based on love, happiness, and satisfaction, not tradition or duty.

  • A "pure relationship" exists only as long as both partners are happy.

  • Leads to more divorce, cohabitation, and reconstituted families.

  📘 Beck (1992) – "Negotiated Family"

  • We now live in a risk society where individuals calculate the risks and benefits of relationships.

  • The "negotiated family" is based on equality and choice, but can be unstable.

  • social policy examples - Same-Sex Marriage Act (2014), No-Fault Divorce Law (2022), Civil Partnerships (2003)

evaluations - 👍 Strengths:

• Recognises diversity and choice in modern family life.

• Explains rise in non-traditional families (e.g. cohabitation, same-sex parenting).

• Reflects real-life changes in society.

👎 Weaknesses:

• May overstate individual freedom – choices are still influenced by class, gender, ethnicity.

• Ignores structural factors (e.g. poverty, patriarchy).

• Some people still choose traditional families, so not everyone is postmodern.

conservative policies in practice

• clause/section 28 - prohibited local authorities from promoting homosexuality

• Benefits withdrawn from 16-18 year olds (onus on the family to support ‘children’)

• They support marriage tax breaks to encourage ‘more stable’ families

• critisisms - Blames victims for their own problems: most one-parent families are not feckless lone mothers, but casualties of broken families

• Assumes people who claim benefits are lazy & workshy but many want jobs 

• The positive image of the traditional heterosexual nuclear family hides the true amount of unhappiness and frustration experienced by many in such families

• An idealised view of the past which ignores social change and family diversity

New labour 1997-2010

• Nuclear is best but accept family diversity

• Same sex & cohabiting couples adoption (2002)

• Repealed/Abolished section 28 (2003)

• Introduced civil partnerships (2004) - Gave legal recognition to same-sex couples – supported family diversity.

• New deal- help for single parents to find work (1998) - Encouraged lone parents to work with training and childcare support.

  child poverty.

• Longer maternity leave & pay .

• 2 weeks paternity leave (2003) - Helped balance work and family – encouraged gender equality.

• sure start - Early education and support for families with young children (health + parenting help).

criticisms;

✅ Strengths:

• Acknowledged modern family diversity while still supporting stable families.

• Introduced real policy improvements for working-class and lone-parent families.

• Tried to tackle child poverty (e.g. via Sure Start, tax credits).

❌ Criticisms:

• New Right said policies undermined the nuclear family and encouraged state dependency.

• Feminists argued they didn’t do enough to challenge gender inequality in the home.

• Some policies (e.g. New Deal) were criticised for pushing parents into work rather than offering real choice.

coalition government (2010-2015)

• A mix of New Right and liberal approaches.

• Promoted marriage and two-parent families, but also wanted to cut public spending.

• Pushed for austerity policies – big reductions in welfare and state support.

• Emphasis on individual responsibility and "making work pay".

Social policies related to coalition:

• bedroom tax - reduces amount that your rent can be paid by benefits - goes down 14 percent for 1 spare bedroom and 25 percent for 2 spare bedrooms

• universal credit - Combined 6 benefits into one to simplify welfare and encourage work. Critics say it punished the poor.

• support for same sex marriage - Legalised same-sex marriage – reflects more liberal views and acceptance of diversity (Lib Dem influence).

• Marriage Tax Allowance - Small tax break for married couples – promoted traditional family values (New Right influence).

evaluations of coalition policies

• 👍 Strengths:

  • Simplified welfare system (Universal Credit).

  • Reflected changing attitudes by supporting same-sex marriage.

  • Tried to reduce government debt after 2008 financial crisis.

  👎 Criticisms:

  • Austerity policies led to rising child poverty, especially in working-class and single-parent families.

  • Cutbacks on Sure Start and childcare support made it harder for women to work – Feminist criticism.

  • Marriage tax allowance was small and seen as symbolic rather than effective.