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Cellular Respiration
The process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into energy, carbon dioxide, and water.
Glycolysis
The metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP and NADH.
Pyruvate Oxidation
The process that converts pyruvate into acetyl-CoA, generating CO2 and NADH and linking glycolysis to the Krebs cycle.
Krebs Cycle
A series of enzymatic reactions that produce NADH, FADH2, and ATP through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA.
Electron Transport Chain
A series of protein complexes in the mitochondrial membrane that transfer electrons from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen.
Oxidative Phosphorylation
The process of ATP production that occurs through the transfer of electrons in the electron transport chain and the movement of protons.
NADH
A coenzyme that carries electrons and protons, produced during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.
FADH2
A coenzyme that carries electrons and protons, produced during the Krebs cycle.
ATP Synthase
An enzyme that uses the proton gradient created by the electron transport chain to synthesize ATP.
Proton Gradient
A difference in proton concentration across a membrane, which drives ATP synthesis during oxidative phosphorylation.
Aerobic Respiration
A type of cellular respiration that requires oxygen to produce energy.
Anaerobic Conditions
Conditions in which oxygen is absent, leading to less efficient ATP production through glycolysis and fermentation.
Fermentation
A metabolic process that regenerates NAD+ from NADH in the absence of oxygen, allowing glycolysis to continue.
Lactic Acid Fermentation
A type of fermentation that occurs in human muscles and some bacteria, converting pyruvate into lactic acid.
Alcohol Fermentation
A type of fermentation that occurs in yeast, converting pyruvate into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Cofactors
Molecules or ions that assist enzymes in catalyzing reactions.
Allosteric Regulation
The regulation of an enzyme's activity through the binding of molecules at sites other than the active site.
Feedback Inhibition
A regulatory mechanism in which the end product of a metabolic pathway inhibits an upstream process.
Transcription
The process of copying genetic information from DNA to RNA.
Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
The flow of genetic information from DNA to RNA to proteins.
Complementary Base Pairing
The specific pairing of nitrogenous bases in DNA: adenine with thymine, and cytosine with guanine.
Nucleoside Triphosphate (NTP)
A molecule consisting of a nitrogenous base, a sugar, and three phosphate groups; used in RNA synthesis.
Promoter Region
A specific DNA sequence where RNA polymerase binds to initiate transcription.
mRNA
Messenger RNA, a type of RNA that carries instructions from DNA for protein synthesis.
tRNA
Transfer RNA, a type of RNA that carries amino acids to the ribosome for protein synthesis.
rRNA
Ribosomal RNA, a component of ribosomes that helps catalyze peptide bond formation.
Polypeptide
A chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, making up proteins.
Activation Energy
The minimum energy required for a chemical reaction to occur.
Hydrolysis
A chemical reaction that involves the breaking of a bond by the addition of water.
Enzyme-substrate complex
A temporary complex formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate.
DNA Ligase
An enzyme that joins DNA strands together by forming phosphodiester bonds.
RNA Polymerase
An enzyme that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template during transcription.
Intron
A non-coding sequence of DNA that is removed during RNA processing.
Exon
A coding sequence of DNA that is retained in the final mRNA.
Splicing
The process of removing introns and joining exons together in mRNA.
Codon
A sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA that specifies an amino acid.
Post-transcriptional modification
The process of modifying RNA after transcription, including capping, polyadenylation, and splicing.
Anticodon
A sequence of three nucleotides on tRNA that pairs with the complementary codon on mRNA.
Polycistronic mRNA
A type of mRNA that encodes multiple proteins, common in prokaryotes.
Monocistronic mRNA
A type of mRNA that encodes only one protein, typical in eukaryotes.
Ribosome Binding Site (RBS)
The sequence in prokaryotic mRNA that facilitates the binding of the ribosome.
Translation Initiation Complex
The assembly of ribosomal subunits, mRNA, and the initiator tRNA before protein synthesis begins.
Simple sequence repeat (SSR)
Short sequences of DNA that are repeated, often used as genetic markers.
Alternative Splicing
The process by which different combinations of exons are joined together to produce different isoforms of proteins.
Gene Expression
The process by which information from a gene is used to synthesize functional products such as proteins.
RNA Processing
The modifications that RNA undergoes after transcription, including splicing and capping.
Translocation
The process of shifting the position of the ribosome along the mRNA during translation.
Peptidyl Transferase
An enzyme present in the ribosome that catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids.
Stop Codon
A codon in mRNA that signals the termination of translation, resulting in the release of the newly formed polypeptide.
Polyribosome
A complex of multiple ribosomes translating a single mRNA simultaneously.
Transcription Factors
Proteins that assist RNA polymerase in initiating transcription by binding to specific DNA sequences.
Nucleosome
A structural unit of chromatin, consisting of DNA wrapped around a core of histone proteins.
Chromatin
The complex of DNA and proteins that forms chromosomes within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
Histones
Basic proteins around which DNA is coiled to form nucleosomes.
Euchromatin
A less condensed form of chromatin that is active in transcription.
Heterochromatin
Tightly packaged form of DNA, generally inactive in transcription and found at the periphery of the nucleus.
Telomere
The repetitive DNA sequence at the ends of chromosomes that protects them from degradation.
Origin of Replication (ori)
The specific location on a DNA molecule where replication begins.
Leading Strand
The DNA strand that is synthesized continuously in the direction of the replication fork.
Lagging Strand
The DNA strand that is synthesized discontinuously in Okazaki fragments, away from the replication fork.
Okazaki Fragments
Short sequences of DNA synthesized on the lagging strand during DNA replication.
DNA Template Strand
The strand of DNA that serves as the template for RNA synthesis during transcription.
Transcription Bubble
The region of unwound DNA where transcription occurs.
Rho-Dependent Termination
A mechanism of transcription termination in bacteria that involves the Rho factor.
Rho-Independent Termination
A mechanism of transcription termination in bacteria that relies on the formation of a hairpin structure in RNA.
Mature mRNA
The final form of mRNA after processing, ready for translation.
Spliceosome
A complex that carries out the splicing of introns from pre-mRNA.
RNA-dependent RNA polymerase
An enzyme that synthesizes RNA from an RNA template.
Translatome
The complete set of all mRNAs and their corresponding proteins in a cell.
Peptide Bond
A covalent bond formed between two amino acids during protein synthesis.
Chaperone Proteins
Proteins that assist in the proper folding of newly synthesized polypeptides.
Post-translational Modification
Chemical changes to a protein after translation, affecting its activity and function.
Gene Regulation
The mechanisms that cells use to increase or decrease the production of specific gene products.
Signal Transduction Pathways
Processes by which cells respond to signals from their environment, often involving a cascade of molecular events.
Phosphorylation
The addition of a phosphate group to a molecule, often used in signaling pathways to activate or deactivate proteins.
Covalent Modification
The addition or removal of chemical groups from a protein to alter its activity or function.
Apoptosis
The process of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms.
Bioinformatics
The application of computational tools to the understanding and analysis of biological data.
Proteomics
The large-scale study of proteins, particularly their functions and structures.
Genomics
The study of genomes, the complete set of DNA within a single cell of an organism.
Metabolomics
The scientific study of chemical processes involving metabolites.
Synthetic Biology
An interdisciplinary branch of biology and engineering that combines biology and synthetic systems.
Biotechnology
The use of living systems or organisms to develop or create different products.
Clinical Trials
Research studies performed on people to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of a medical, surgical, or behavioral intervention.
Transgenic Organisms
Organisms that have been genetically modified to contain a gene from another species.
Gene Therapy
An experimental technique that uses genes to treat or prevent disease.
CRISPR
A family of DNA sequences in prokaryotes that can be used for genome editing.
