Biology Final Set

Go to Lauren's for Unit 1 Q-Cards, for all different types of dihybrid crosses, and for significance of mitosis and meiosis.

Transpiration

The evaporation of water from the plants surface and how water and some dissolved minerals move through the plant.

Guttation

The loss of liquids from the end of vascular tissues at the margins of leaves.

Water Potential

How water is transported up for the roots to the leaves through the xylem. This is the potential energy of water molecules.

What contributes to Water Potential?

Gravity, Pressure, Solute Concentration. This is when water always wants to move to balance its self out and allows for it to move from high concentration to low concentration (Concentration Gradient).

Osmosis

How water moves through out a plant. This is from high to low concentration.

Cohesion

The ability for water molecules to be attracted to themselves through hydrogen bonds.

Adhesion

The ability of water to stick to other things.

Stomata

Small opening in the leaf surface which open into air spaces that surround the mesophyll cells of the leaf.

Tension

A pull the fluid in the xylem which continues the pull of water up to evaporate.

Stomata Cons

Allows for a good majority of water to be evaporated out of it because of climate factors.

Climate Factors

1. Normal Lab

2. Sunlight

3. Humidity

4. Wind

Bubbles?

There should be no bubbles in the tube because then you would have a BROKEN column of water which in turn does not allow for the plant to pull the water up.

Wind

This one creates the most transpiration as AIR IS A SOULTION which means that the water is pushed away which makes air have a lower water potential (attracting water).

Light

More Photosynthesis happening which takes up more water and has the ability to heat the water up which creates more evaporation.

Ambient Room Temperature

This has some of the factors around it but is much more dry then the humid surrounding which allows the water to evaporate out of it. THIS IS THE CONTROL AND SHOWS THAT THE EXPERIMENT IS VALID. THIS IS THE BASE LINE THAT WE COMPARE EVERYTHING TO.

Humidity

This the least amount of water loss because the amount of water in the air and in the plant is almost equal so there is less amount of a concentration gradient if any.

How do the Plants gets water around its self?

Water cannot be pumped so there must have transmembrane active protein pumps (that special in specific minerals) to make there a lower water potential and higher number of solutes which allows for the water to move through.

How does the plant get water from the soil?

Pushes solutes into the roots which allows for the water to be brought into the plant as there becomes a lower water potential in the plant then soil.

Stomata are closed

This means that the K+ ions have been pumped out of the so the water follows. This allows the pore to become flaccid and close. The K+ leaves the GUARD CELLS.

Guard Cells

This are the cells that control the stomata and if they are open or closed.

Each stoma is controlled by 2.

When are Stomata closed

When Dark, CO2 in the plant is high and the soil water is low. This is around 12pm-3pm, 7pmish to 4amish. This is so the plant does not dehydrate and can still do photosynthesis.

Open Stomata

This is when the guard cells swell and become turgid which allows for the walls to stand up.

K+ ions move into the guard cells which draw water in.

When are Stomata’s Open

Light, Low Co2 in the Plant, and high soil water. Which is around 5am - 12pm, 3pm-7pmish. This is the part where there is enough light to survive but also have the ability to not get dehydrated.

Angiosperm

Flowering plants which are the largest and most diverse group in the plant kingdom. This allows for there to seed that could be contained in fruit.

2 types: Monocots and Dicots.

Gymnosperms

Non-Flowering, they have naked seeds that are exposed to the surface and not protected by fruit. (Pine or Spruce)

Photosynthesis Equation

6CO₂ + 6H₂O →(Sunlight ON TOP OF ARROW) C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

Purpose of Photosynthesis

• Allows for animals to get Glucose to get ATP form cellular respiration

• Regulates CO₂ by using it up and is a good carbon sink for then environment

• is a primary way to convert solar energy to chemical energy

• creates O₂ for animals to be able to survive too

Why is seed dispersion important for plant?

• not to compete with their parents

• to continue to survive to get nutrients

• to get some sun and be away from large plants

• This improves biodiversity over all.

5 ways of seed dispersion

1. Wind → Seeds are light and have ways of being carried by the wind which allows them to fly away

2. Water → Seeds are buoyant enough to float away and can go to another shore. Most plants that uses this type of dispersion are on a beach or near a older body of water.

3. Animal → The seeds are eaten then excreted in another area, they can be buried by squirrels and them forgotten about, or they hook on to animals and distributed else where.

4. Gravity → fall then roll away.

5. Explosion → built up pressure allows for the seeds to be put else where. This is usually in peas and pods.

Xylem and Phloem Diagram

The Xylem is more inside to the Phloem which is then protected by bark.

Heart Wood

Old Xylem and Phloem from each year. This had then been filled with some form of resin so bugs and moss or other disruptive plants can destroy it.

Number of embryotic seeds MONOCOT

1

Number of embryotic seeds DICOT

2

Type of Root MONOCOT

Fibrous which anchors the plant and absorbs water and minerals

Type of Root Dicot

Taproot which anchors the plant and absorbs water and minerals as well as food and water storage

Leave Shapes MONOCOT

Veins are parallel to each other

Leave Shape DICOT

Net Shaped

Germination MONOCOT

comes out with a point (like a tulip)

Germination DICOT

Comes out in a arch (hypocotyl) → Pulls the head out of the soil when ready

Wood around it? Monocot or Dicot.

Only Dicots have wood around it some monocots have herbaceous which is soft and flexible.

Number of Flower Petals MONOCOTS

3 and multiples

Number of Flower Petals DICOTS

4-5 and multiples

Dicot Root Diagram

Monocot Stem Diagram

Dicot Stem Diagram

Monocot Root Diagram

Structure of the Xylem

Stacked tube of dead plant cell which have been created from the cellulose that creates the plant cell wall.

Function of the Xylem

To Transport water from the roots to the leaves and other photosynthesizing area of the plant that need the water to make sugars by using Transpiration and active transport of solutes.

Factors that affect water consumption and Transpiration

1. Temperature (hot or cold (the water could be frozen)

2. Wind

3. Time of Day (is the sun out?)

4. Leave of CO₂ in the plant (Affects stomata)

5. Amount of water in the ground

6. This all affects if the the stomata is open or closed

Where are stomata?

ONLY ON THE BOTTOM

Plant Cross section Diagram

Phloem Structure Diagram

Companion cell

a type of phloem cell that carries out life function (Such as ATP production) to maintain both the sieve tube associated with it and its self.

Sieve Tube

a type of phloem cell with plates at both ends that are perforated with holes, alive at maturity but lacks a nucleus; conducts water an nutrients. The sieve plate if injured can be filled with proteins to allow for the plant to not be killed or lose lots of sugars easily.

Parenchyma

This is lateral storage and transport of sugars

Function of the Phloem

Move Sugars and things produced by photosynthesis around the plant to the cells that need it.

Translocation

The term used to describe the movement of sugars from source to sink.

Pressure Flow Model

• A high concentration of sugar at the source creates a low solute potential.

• The low solute potential draws water into the phloem from the adjacent xylem.

• Movement of water into the phloem creates a high pressure potential, aka high turgor pressure, in the phloem.

• The high turgor pressure forces movement of phloem sap from source to sink by moving from high to low pressure.

• The sugars moved are then rapidly removed from the phloem through active transport at the sink.

• Removal of the sugars at the sink, which causes water to leave the phloem and return to the xylem.

Transpiration and Homeostasis

1. Controls Temperature → can cool when evaporation is happening

2. Water and Mineral Transport → helps to distribute dissolved minerals

3. Helps with Turgor Pressure → helps to open and close the stomata by having enough water

Adaptations for Hot and Dry Climates (Plants)

1. Thicker and waxy cuticles → less water loss out of leaves (if any)

2. Decreased Number of Stomata → less holes to lose water out of

3. Rolled leaf → traps moisture in

4. Sunken Stomata → limited transpiration as limited exposure to light and possibly heat

5. Hairy leaves → Traps Humid air

6. has specialized tissues to store water

Adaptations for Aquatic Environment (Plants)

1. no cuticles → no worry about water loss

2. Stomata is on top → allows for gas exchange

3. large air spaces in the plant → is buoyant and allows for gases to move around

4. reduced xylem → does not need as much water transportation

Adaptation for cold environments (Plants)

1. Low and small → prevents strong wind damage

2. Dark Leaves → attracts more sunlight and heat

3. Short life cycle → Can reproduce quickly

4. Small needle-like leaves → have a thick waxy cuticle to decrease water loss as water in the air is frozen in cold weather

5. Dormancy in the winter if possible

Species

A group of individuals that have the ability to interbreed and create viable off spring.

Sexual Recombination

The exchange between mom and dad’s chromosomes (DNA) during meiosis.

Variation

The difference between individuals in the same species which is caused by genetic and environment factors.

5 Pillars of Darwin’s Theory of Evolution

1. Variation → there has to have different traits in the species to allow for shifts and some to out compete to allow for evolution

2. There is competition for survival → more offspring are created then that will survive

3. Natural Selection → Only the ones with desirable traits for that environment will survive

4. Traits are Pass on → Everything is inherited

5. Species can change over time depending on the environment → This could cause a new species to be created

Hardy- Weinberg Equations

p+q=1 (allele frequency) and p²+2pq+q² = 1 (Genotype frequency)

Conditions for the Hardy-Weinberg Equations to Work

1. No direct mutations

2. no natural selection (equal fitness among all)

3. Random mating (no sexual selection)

4. no genetic drift (there is a large population (the flipping a coin thing and chance))

5. no gene flow (no immigration or emigration)

Allopatric Speciation

Occurs because of a physical barrier (ie living on a island) so there is no gene flow or a very small amount of it. This can create 2 different species.

Sympatric Speciation

Occurs because of reproductive isolating mechanism (intrinsic) which could be behavior. temporal, genetic (can possibly get together but not have a viable offspring), and sexual selection. This can create 2 different species.

Embryology

Closely related species go though similar stages of development (ie dolphins have little numbs when in womb)

This can signify shared genes.

This is a evidence for evolution.

Anatomy

Structure only make sense hen you look back at their ancestry. (ie. vestigial structure, homologous structures, analogous structures)

This is a evidence for evolution.

Vestigial Structures

This are reduced and non-functioning parts or organs (ie hip bones in whales) that were inherited from ancestors

They were once important for survival and reproduction

They now do not positively or negatively impact how well the organism survives so it does not affect its sexual or natural selection

Homologous structure

They have similar fundamental layout and constructions but many have different purposes. Thus this shows that they have a common ancestor.

Analogous Structure

Similar in function but inherited or evolved independently from one another. They would not have a common ancestor then.

Fossil Records

• This is a evidence of evolution.

• This is when bones are found within layers of sedimentary rock and in a order.

• This succession shows that the organisms can change over time and descend from a common ancestor.

• This would develop form simpler to more complex animals and shows a direct line of descendance.

• CAN HAVE GAPS.

Biogeography

• This is an evidence of evolution. This is the study of the past and present geographical distribution of species (DARWIN AND SPREADING).

• Shows that they can adapt to the environment which can form new species.

• The more closely related species are more geographically close.

• Thus, areas on an island would resemble animals in the mainland.

• Evidence: fossils of the same species can be found on coastline of neighboring continents.

DNA Evidence

This is determined by similar DNA which can indicate a common ancestor.

This is very new and not all animals have the DNA.

Diploid

2n - Cells with a homologous chromosomes. (2 of the same to code to; one from Mom and one from Dad)

Haploid

n → cell with only one chromosome per pair.

non-disjunction

This is when a pair of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatic do not sperate properly which can cause trisomy or monosomy and can happen in either anaphase 1 or anaphase 2 or meiosis.

Selective Breeding

The process of breeding plants animals for a desirable trait. This can be artificial.

Crossing over

The exchange of segments between homologous pairs.

Steps of Mitosis

Mitosis Reproduction

For body (somatic cells) or bacteria reproduction

Meiosis Reproduction

For sex (gametes cells) and creates haploids.

Meiosis Steps

Karyotypes of Downs Syndrome

Trisomy 21

Karyotype for Turners Syndrome

Monosomy 23 (XO)

Karyotype for Klinefelter Syndrome

Trisomy 23

Blood Type Compatibility

Antigens and Antibodies of Blood types

Phenotype​	Possible Genotype(s)​	Antigen on RBC surface​	Can Donate Blood To​	Can Receive Blood From ​
A​	IAIA IAIO = IAi	A antigen (protein)	Type A Type AB	Type A Type O
B​	IBIB IBIO = IBi	B antigen	Type B Type AB	Type B Type O
AB​	IAIB	A and B proteins	Type AB	All blood types
O​	IOIO = ii	No antigens	All blood types	Type O