AP Psychology

What is Hindsight Bias?

The tendency to believe one would have predicted an outcome after it has occurred, leading to overconfidence.

What does Confirmation Bias refer to?

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one’s existing beliefs, ignoring opposing evidence.

What is the Overconfidence Effect?

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s knowledge, judgments, or abilities.

Define Theory of Mind.

The ability to recognize that others have mental states that may be different from one’s own, leading to empathy and social skills.

What is the Operational Definition Principle?

The principle that a variable must be defined in terms of specific procedures used to measure or manipulate it.

What is Classical Conditioning?

A type of learning where an organism learns to associate two stimuli, so that one predicts the other.

Describe Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning.

A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

What is Stimulus Generalization?

The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Define Stimulus Discrimination.

The learned ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli.

What happens during Extinction in Classical Conditioning?

The conditioned response decreases and eventually disappears when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

What is Spontaneous Recovery in Classical Conditioning?

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period without new conditioning.

Explain Operant Conditioning.

A learning process in which behavior is strengthened or weakened based on the consequences that follow it.

What does the Law of Effect state?

Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, while those followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.

What is Positive Reinforcement?

The addition of a desirable stimulus after a behavior, increasing the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

Define Negative Reinforcement.

The removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior, which increases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

What is Positive Punishment?

The addition of an aversive stimulus after a behavior, which decreases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

Explain Negative Punishment.

The removal of a desirable stimulus after a behavior, which decreases the likelihood of that behavior being repeated.

What are Primary Reinforcers?

Stimuli that are innately rewarding because they satisfy biological needs, like food or water.

What are Secondary Reinforcers?

Stimuli that become rewarding through association with primary reinforcers, like money.

What characterizes Continuous Reinforcement?

A schedule where a behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs, leading to quick acquisition but rapid extinction when reinforcement stops.

Describe Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement.

A schedule where a behavior is reinforced only part of the time, which is slower to learn but more resistant to extinction.

What is Shaping?

An operant conditioning technique in which successive approximations of a target behavior are reinforced until the desired behavior is achieved.

Define Chaining.

An operant conditioning technique where individual behaviors are linked together in a sequence, where each step cues the next.

What is Observational Learning?

Learning that occurs by watching the behaviors of others and the consequences of those behaviors.

What is Social Learning Theory?

The theory that people can learn behaviors by observing others and considering the rewards or punishments that follow.

What is the Information Processing Model?

A model that describes memory as a series of steps: encoding, storing, and retrieving information.

What is the Spacing Effect?

The tendency for distributed study or practice to lead to better long-term retention than cramming.

What is Testing Effect?

The finding that actively retrieving information from memory leads to better long-term retention than passive review.

Define Flashbulb Memory.

Vivid, emotion-laden memories for surprising or significant events, held with high confidence but not necessarily accurate.

What is Cognitive Dissonance Theory?

The discomfort we feel when holding two conflicting thoughts or when our behavior contradicts our beliefs.

What does Attribution Theory explain?

How people interpret and explain the causes of behavior, whether theirs or others.

What is the Fundamental Attribution Error?

The tendency to overestimate internal causes and underestimate situational causes when explaining others' behaviors.

Describe the Self-Serving Bias.

The tendency to attribute successes to internal factors and failures to external factors.

Define Anxiety Disorders.

Psychological disorders characterized by excessive fear and anxiety that interfere with daily functioning.

What is Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)?

Excessive, persistent worry about everyday life events, not tied to one specific thing.

What is Panic Disorder?

A condition characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks and ongoing fear of having more.

Define Specific Phobia.

An intense, irrational fear of a specific object or situation that leads to avoidance.

What is Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)?

Persistent depressed mood and loss of interest, along with other symptoms that impair daily functioning for at least 2 weeks.

What characterizes Bipolar I Disorder?

Presence of at least one full manic episode, often alternating with episodes of depression.

Define Schizophrenia.

A psychological disorder characterized by distorted thinking, perceptions, emotions, and behaviors, often involving a loss of contact with reality.

What are Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia?

Symptoms that add something abnormal, such as hallucinations and delusions.

What is Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)?

A condition with the presence of two or more distinct personality states and memory gaps.

Define Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).

A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by persistent patterns of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity.

What defines Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)?

Persistent differences in social communication and restrictive or repetitive behaviors/interests.

What is the role of the environment in personality development according to Social-Cognitive Theory?

Personality is shaped by the interaction of thoughts, behavior, and environment.