AP Psychology

Theories

1. Research & Thinking Theories

Hindsight Bias

• “I knew it all along” effect

• After an outcome, people believe they predicted it all along

• Makes us overconfident

• Messes with accurate memory

Confirmation Bias

• Tendency to search for, interpret and remember info in a way that confirms one’s existing beliefs

• Ignores or downplays opposing evidence

• Leads to biased thinking

• Strengthens stereotypes

• Poor judgements, polarized opinions

Overconfidence Effect

• Tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s knowledge, judgments, or abilities

• Riskier divisions

• Reduces careful thinking

• Causes mistakes

Theory of Mind

• Ability to recognize that others have mental states that may be different from one’s own

• “Other minds exist”

• Empathy, social skills, communication

Operational Definition Principle

• Variable must be defined in terms of specific procedures used to measure of manipulate it

• Makes research clear

• Prevents vague terms from meaning different things

• EXAM

  • “How is the variable measured?” “Define in measurable terms?” = operational definition

2. Learning Theories (Major + Minor)

Classical Conditioning

• Type of learning which an organism learns to associate two stimuli so that one stimulus predicts another

  • E.x. feeling anxious when you hear a dentist drill because of past pain

Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning

• Learning process where a neural stimulus, after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that elicits a conditioned response

  • Learning by associating a neutral stimulus with a natural response

Before conditioning

1. Food (US) - salivation (UR)

2. Bell (NS) - no salivation

During conditioning

1. Bell (NS) + Food (US) - salivation (UR)

After conditioning

1. Bell (CS) - salivation (CR)

• Terms

  • Unconditioned stimulus (US): food

  • Unconditioned response (UR): salivation

  • Conditioned stimulus (CS): bell

  • Conditioned response (CR): salivation to bell

  • Neutral stimulus (NS): bell during conditioning

Stimulus Generalization

• Tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus in the same way

  • E.x. dog conditioned to salivate to a bell, dog also salivates to similar-sounding bell or tone

• EXAM

  • Generalization: similar stimuli = same response

  • Discrimination: only the specific stimulus causes the response

Stimulus Discrimination

• Learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli

  • E.x. god salivates only to the specific bell tone

• EXAM

  • Generalization: similar stimuli = same response

  • Discrimination: only the exact stimulus = response

Extinction

• Conditioned response decreases and eventually disappears when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with unconditioned stimulus

  • Weakening of a learned response

  • E.x. dog learned: bell = food = salivation, bell rings without food over and over, salivation to bell fades away = extinction

  • CR weakens and disappears

• EXAM

  • Extinction does not erase learning, it suppresses it

  • “Response weakens” “CS no longer followed by US” = extinction

Spontaneous Recovery

• Reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a rest period, without new conditioning

  • Opposite of extinction, CR reappears after a pause

Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner)

• Learning in which behavior is strengthened or weakened based on the consequences that follow it

  • Learning by consequences

• Behavior = consequence = future likelihood of behavior

• EXAM

  • Consequence matters, not association

  • Operant = voluntary behavior (Contrast: classical = automatic response)

  • Used rats and pigeons in controlled experiments

Law of Effect (Thorndike)

• Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated, behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated

  • Foundation of operant conditioning

• Explains learning through trial and error

• EXAM

  • Key difference: Thorndike studied cats, Skinner used rats and pigeons in controlled experiments

Positive Reinforcement

• Desirable stimulus is added after a behavior, making if more likely the behavior will occur again

• EXAM

  • Positive = adding something

Negative Reinforcement

• Unpleasant stimulus is removed after a behavior making it more likely the behavior will occur again

• EXAM

  • Negative = taking something away

Positive Punishment

• Aversive stimulus is added after a behavior, making it less likely to occur again

  • Adding something unpleasant to decrease behavior

• EXAM

  • Positive = adding something

Negative Punishment

• Desirable stimulus is removed after a behavior making it less likely it will occur again

  • Taking away something pleasant

• EXAM

  • Negative = taking something away

Primary Reinforcers

• Stimuli that are innately rewarding because they satisfy biological needs

  • E.x. food, water, shelter, physical comfort

• Unlearned = naturally motivating

• Often related to survival

Secondary Reinforcers

• Reinforcers are stimuli that become rewarding through association with primary reinforcers

  • Learned rewards

  • E.x. money (can buy food), grades (praise and future opportunities)

• Learned = not naturally satisfying but becomes reinforcing through association

• Signals access to primary reinforcer

Continuous Reinforcement

• Schedule in which a behavior is reinforced every single time it occurs

  • Reward every time the behavior occurs

• Fastest way to teach a behavior

  • But extinction happens quickly if reinforcement stops

• EXAM

  • Contrasted with partial reinforcement which is slower to learn but more resistant to extinction

Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement

• Schedule in which a behavior is reinforced only part of the time, not every time it occurs

1. Fixed-ratio (FR)

   1. Reward after a set number of responses

   2. High response, brief pause after reward

2. Variable-ratio (VR)

   1. Reward after a random number of responses

   2. Most resistant to extinction

3. Fixed-interval (FI)

   1. Reward after set amount of time

   2. Could cram

4. Variable-interval (VI)

   1. Reward after a random amount of time

   2. Slow, steady responding

Shaping

• Operant conditioning technique in which successive approximations of a target behavior are reinforced until the desired behavior is achieved

  • Teaching a behavior step by step

• Reward small steps toward the final behavior, makes learning complex behaviors easier

• Often used in operant conditioning examples

Chaining

• Individual behaviors are linked together in a sequence

  • Each step becomes the cue for the next step until a full behavior is learned

• Teach small behaviors, connect them, they become one complete action

• E.x. teaching a child to brush teeth (steps)

• Chaining connects several behaviors into one sequence while shaping rewards small steps toward one behavior

• EXAM

  • “Learning a sequence of steps”, “linking behaviors together”

Observational Learning

• Learning that occurs by watching the behaviors of others and the consequences of those behaviors

  • Learning by watching others

• EXAM

  • Modeling = copying behavior

  • Vicarious reinforcement/punishment = learning from consequences others receive

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

• People can learn behaviors by observing others and considering the rewards or punishments that follow those behaviors

  • Learning by observing and imitating others, considering consequences

  • E.x. bobo doll experiment: children watched adults acting aggressively = children imitated aggressive behavior

    • Children more likely to imitate when adults were rewarded or not punished

• EXAM

  • Contrasts with classical condition (automatic responses) and operant conditioning (learning from your own behaviors consequences

3. Cognitive & Memory Theories

Information Processing Model

• Describes memory as a series of steps: info is encoded, stored, and later retrieved

1. Encoding

   1. Converting info into a form the brain can use

      1. E.x. reading a textbook - understanding and noting key point

2. Storage

   1. Keeping info in memory over time

      1. E.x. remembering facts for a test

3. Retrieval

   1. Getting info back when needed

      1. E.x. recalling facts during an exam

• Memory is active processing, not just passive storage

• EXAM

  • Related to sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory

Parallel Processing

• Ability to process multiple types of information simultaneously instead of one at a time

  • Handling many pieces of information at once

• EXAM

  • Contrasted with serial processing (processing one thing at a time)

  • Key for vision, perception, and multitasking questions

Three-Stage Memory Model (Atkinson–Shiffrin)

• Memory occurs in three stages:

1. Sensory memory

   1. Duration: milliseconds-seconds

   2. Function: briefly holds incoming sensory info

   3. Example: Seeing a flash of lightning, hearing a loud bang

   4. Capacity: very large but info faces quickly

2. Short-term memory/Working memory

   1. Duration: 20 s without rehearsal

   2. Capacity: 7 ± 2 items (miller’s magic number)

   3. Function: temporarily holds and manipulates information

   4. Example: remembering a phone number long enough to dial

Levels of Processing Theory

• Memory depends on how deeply info in processed, not how long it is studied

1. Structural processing

   1. focuses on appearance

   2. Weak memory

2. Phonemic processing

   1. Focuses on sound

   2. Moderate memory

3. Semantic processing

   1. Focuses on meaning

   2. Strongest memory retention

• EXAM

  • Making info meaningful improves memory

Encoding Specificity Principle

• Memory is best when retrieval conditions match the conditions during encoding

• When encoding a memory, you also encode environment, mood, surrounding cues

  • These cues help retrieve the memory later

Serial Position Effect

• Tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle ones

1. Primacy effect

   1. Better memory for first items

   2. Stored in long-term memory

2. Recency Effect

   1. Better memory for last items

   2. Stored in short-term memory

• Recency disappears after delay, primacy stays (long-term memory)

Spacing Effect

• Tendency for distributed study or practice to lead to better long-term retention than cramming

• Reduces fatigue, increases long-term retention, allows memory consolidation

  • Cramming helps with short-term recall

Testing Effect

• Finding that actively retrieving info from memory leads to better long-term retention than passive review

  • Retrieval strengthens memory

• EXAM

  • Works well with spacing effect

Flashbulb Memory

• Vivid, emotion-laden memory for a surprising or significant event, held with high confidence but not necessarily accurate

• Emotion = stronger memory feeling, not better memory accuracy

Reconsolidation Theory

• When a memory is retrieved, it becomes unstable and can be altered before being stored again

1. A memory is retrieved

2. It becomes unstable/flexible

3. New info, emotions, or context can alter it

4. Memory is re-stored, possibly changed

Retrieval failure

• Information is stored in memory, but you can’t access it when you need it

• E.x. you studied for a test but during the test your mind goes blank and later you remember the answer

• Why: missing cues (environment, mood, context), stress or pressure, not enough strong connections to the memory

• EXAM

  • “Tip of the tongue”, “memory is there but inaccessible”

Encoding failure

• Info never gets properly stored in memory in the first place

  • Brain never really saved it, there’s nothing to retrieve

• E.x. Someone introduces themselves, you immediately forget their name

• Why: lack of attention, distractions, shallow processing (not thinking about meaning)

• Encoding failure = never stored, retrieval failure = stored but can’t access

Proactive interference

• Old info interferes with learning or remembering new info

  • Old blocks new

• E.x. you learn your old password, then change it, you keep trying the old one by mistake

• Previously learned info makes it harder to remember newer info

Retroactive interference

• New info interferes with remembering old info

  • New blocks old

• Learn a new phone number, now you can’t remember old one

• Recently learned info makes it harder to recall earlier info

• Retroactive interference = new-blocks old, proactive interference = old-blocks new

4.Developmental Theories

Piaget’s Cognitive Development

• Children actively construct knowledge as they interact with the world

  • Thinking develops in 4 universal stages

• Assimilation: fitting new info into existing schemas

• Schema: mental framework for organizing info

• Accommodation: changing schemas to fit new info

• Equilibration: balancing assimilation and accommodation to create understanding

1. Sensorimotor stage (birth-2yrs)

   1. Thinking through senses and actions

   2. Object permanence develops

      1. Knowing objects still exist when out of sight

   3. E.x baby looks for a you hidden under a blanket

2. Preoperational stage (2-7yrs)

   1. Thinking is symbolic but not logical

   2. Egocentrism

      1. Can’t see things from other’s perspectives

   3. Centration

      1. Focuses on one feature at a time

   4. E.x thinking a taller glass has more juice even if the amount is the same

3. Concrete Operational stage (7-11yrs)

   1. Logical thinking about concrete events

   2. Understands conservation, less egocentric

   3. Struggles with abstract ideas

   4. E.x Knowing two equal balls of clay are still equal when one is flattened

4. Formal Operational stage (12+yrs)

   1. Abstract and hypothetical thinking

      1. Uses deductive reasoning

   2. E.x solving algebra problems or debating ethical issues

• Happens because children actively explore, adapt their schemas, build more complex ways of thinking over time

• EXAM

  • Object permanence = sensorimotor

  • Egocentrism/conservation failure = preoperational

  • Logical thinking with real objects = concrete operational

  • Abstract or hypothetical reasoning = formal operational

Stranger Anxiety Theory

• Fear or distress infants feel when they see an unfamiliar person

  • Happens around 6-8 months, decreases after 1 yr

• Happens because infants form attachments to familiar caregivers

  • Can now distinguish familiar vs unfamiliar faces

• EXAM

  • Infants around 8-12 months, crying around unfamiliar people, attachment to caregivers

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

• Personality develops across the entire lifespan through 8 stages, each with a social conflict

1. Trust v.s Mistrust (0-1)

   1. Care consistent = trust

   2. Care unreliable = mistrust

      1. E.x baby feels safe when needs are met

2. Autonomy v.s Shame & Doubt (1-3)

   1. Encouraged independence - autonomy

   2. Overly controlled = shame and doubt

      1. E.x letting a toddler dress themselves

3. Initiative v.s Guilt (3-6)

   1. Supported = initiative

   2. Discouraged = guilt

      1. E.x child starts games and activities

4. Industry v.s Inferiority (6-12)

   1. Success in school = industry

   2. Constant failure = inferiority

      1. E.x feeling proud of school work

5. Identity v.s Role Confusion (12-18)

   1. Exploring roles = identity

   2. No exploration = role confusion

      1. E.x teen exploring values, careers, beliefs

6. Intimacy v.s Isolation (Young adult)

   1. Strong bonds = intimacy

   2. Avoidance - isolation

7. Generativity v.s Stagnation (Middle adulthood)

   1. Am I contributing to society?

      1. Helping next generation = generativity

      2. Self-focused = stagnation

8. Integrity v.s Despair (late adulthood)

   1. Was my life meaningful?

      1. Satisfaction = integrity

      2. Regret = despair

Kohlberg’s Moral Development

• Moral reasoning develops in stages, based on how people think about right and wrong, not what choice they make

1. Level 1: Preconventional morality

   1. Moral thinking based on self-interest

   1. Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment

      1. Right = avoiding punishment

   2. Stage 2: Individualism & Exchange

      1. Right = what benefits me

2. Level 2: Conventional Morality

   1. Moral thinking based on social rules

   1. Stage 3: Good boy/girl

      1. Right = pleasing others

   2. Stage 4: Law & Order

      1. Right = obeying laws and authority

3. Level 3: Postconventional Morality

   1. Moral thinking based on principles

   1. Stage 5: Social Contract

      1. Laws are important but can be changed

      2. Focus on rights and values

   2. Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

      1. Morality based on internal values

      2. Justice, equality, human rights

• EXAM

  • Fear of punishment = stage 1, Wanting approval - stage 3, Respect for laws = stage 4, Human rights over laws = stage 5/6

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

• Cognitive development is shaped by social interaction and culture

• Scaffolding = when helper gives support at first, then slowly removes it as the learner improves

• EXAM

  • Learning happens with help from others

Zone of Proximal Development

• Range between what a child can do alone and with help

Attachment Theory (Bowlby & Ainsworth)

• Early relationships between babies and caregivers affect emotional development and future relationships

• Attachment = emotional bond

  • Strong emotional connection between a baby and caregiver

  • Usually forms in the first years of life

• Bowlby’s ideas

  • Secure attachment = children feels safe and protected

  • Affects confidence, relationships, emotional health

• Ainsworth’s experiment

  • Observed babies when parent leaves, stranger enters, parent returns

1. Secure attachment

   1. Upset when parent leaves, happy when parents returns, trusts caregiver

2. Insecure-Avoidant

   1. Not very upset when parent leaves

   2. Avoids parent when they return

3. Insecure-Anxious

   1. Very upset when parent leaves

   2. Hard to comfort when parent returns

4. Disorganized attachment

   1. Confused or unusual behavior

   2. May approach and avoid parent

• early emotional bonds with caregivers influence development and relationships later in life

5. Motivation Theories

Instinct Theory

• Behavior is motivated by innate biological instincts that prompt survival

• Behavior = natural instincts we are born with

  • Survival, hunger, protection instinct

Drive-Reduction Theory

• Motivation comes from desire to reduce physical discomfort and maintain balance in the body

  • We do things to reduce discomfort and return to balance

  • Homeostasis = keeping the body stable

• Drive = need

• Reduction = fix it

Incentive Theory

• Behavior is motivated by external rewards and incentives

  • Behavior = motivated by rewards or incentives

• EXAM

  • Opposite of drive-reduction theory

    • Needs

    • E.x eat because you’re hungry

  • Incentive theory

    • Motivated by rewards

    • E.x eat dessert because it tastes good

Arousal Theory

• Motivated to maintain an optional level of excitement or alertness

• Low arousal (bored)

• High arousal (stressed)

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• Motivation based on fulfilling needs from basic survival to personal growth

1. Physiological needs

   1. Basic survival needs (food, water, sleep, etc)

2. Safety needs

   1. Feeling safe and secure (shelter, protection, stability, etc)

3. Love and belonging

   1. Relationships (friends, family, feeling accepted, etc)

4. Esteem needs

   1. Feeling respected (confidence, achievement, etc)

5. Self - Actualization

   1. Reaching full potential

   2. Becoming best version of yourself

• Lower needs must be met before higher needs

• Bottom = survive, top = thrive

Self-Determination Theory

• Motivated by needs for autonomy, competence, and connection with others

1. Autonomy

   1. Feeling in control of your own choices

2. Competence

   1. Feeling capable and skilled

3. Relatedness

   1. Feeling connected to others

• Intrinsic motivation = comes from inside

• Extrinsic motivation = comes from rewards

6. Emotion Theories

James–Lange Theory

• Emotions are caused by physical body reactions

• EXAM

  • Physical changes come before emotions

  • E.x see a snake, heart beats fast, start shaking, then feel fear

  • Body first

Cannon–Bard Theory

• Emotions and physical reactions occur at the same time

• Stimulus = body reaction + emotion simultaneously

  • E.x see a snake, feel fear & heart races at the same time

Schachter–Singer (Two-Factor)

• Emotions come from physical arousal plus the brain’s interpretation of that arousal

• Emotion = arousal + cognitive label

• E.x

1. Physical arousal (heart racing, sweating, trembling)

2. Cognitive label (“i’m scared” or “i’m excited” based on situation)

3. Emotion occurs (arousal + label = specific emotion)

Lazarus Cognitive-Mediational Theory

• Emotions happen after we interpret a situation cognitively

• Thought, emotion, physical reaction

  • Think about situation first, then feel emotion, then body reacts

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

• Facial expressions can influence emotional experiences

• Face muscles can send signals to your brain that affect how you feel

  • E.x even if you’re not happy, smiling can make you feel happier

• EXAM

  • Body and mind influence each other

  • Emotions are not only reactions, they can be shaped by your body

7. Personality Theories

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

• Personality and behavior are shaped by unconscious motives, childhood experiences, and conflicts between Id, Ego, and Superego

1. Id (I want it now)

   1. Operates on the pleasure principle

   2. Wants immediate gratification

   3. E.x eat a cake now because it looks tasty

2. Ego (Wait, plan)

   1. Operates in the reality principle

   2. Balances Id and superego

   3. E.x wait to eat a cake after dinner

3. Superego (should/shouldn’t)

   1. Operates on morality and ideals

   2. Tells right from wrong

   3. E.x “I shouldn't eat cake before dinner, it’s not proper.”

• Ego uses defence mechanisms to reduce anxiety from conflict between Id and Super ego

• Repression: forgetting bad memories

• Denial: refusing to accept reality

• Projection: blaming others for your feelings

Psychosexual Stages

• Childhood stages of personality development, each focused on a different erogenous zone, where unresolved conflicts can affect adult personality

1. Oral (0-1)

   1. Pleasure from sucking, chewing, biting

   2. Fixation - smoking, nail-biting, overeating

2. Anal (1-3)

   1. Pleasure from controlling bladder/bowels

   2. Fixation - overly neat (anal-retentive) or messy (anal-expulsive)

3. Phallic (3-6)

   1. Oedipus/Electra complex: desire for opposite-sex parent

   2. Fixation - problems with authority or relationships

4. Latency (6-puberty)

   1. Sexual feelings are dormant; focus on school friends

   2. Fixation - minimal direct effect, social skills develop

5. Genital (puberty-adult)

   1. Mature sexual interest develop

   2. Fixation - difficulties in adult relationships if earlier stages unresolved

• Fixation: being stuck at a stage, affects adult personality

• Oedipus complex: boys desire for mother, rivalry with father

• Electra complex: girls desire for father, rivalry with mother

Defense Mechanisms Theory

• Unconscious strategies used by the ego to reduce anxiety caused by conflict between id, ego, and superego

  • Ego protects you from stress and anxiety by distorting reality

• Repression: pushes unwanted thoughts into the unconscious

  • E.x forgetting a traumatic event

• Denial: refusing to accept reality

  • E.x refusing to admit you failed a test

• Projection: attributing your feelings to someone else

  • E.x blaming someone else for your anger

• Displacement: redirecting emotions to a safer target

  • E.x yelling at a sibling instead of your teacher

• Regression: returning to an earlier stage of development

  • E.x throwing a tantrum when stressed

• Rationalization: justifying behavior with logic

  • E.x “I failed because the test was unfair”

• Sublimation: turning negative impulses into positive actions

  • E.x canneling anger into sports

• Reaction formation: acting opposite to your feelings

  • E.x being overly nice to someone you dislike

• EXAM

  • Unconscious= you’re not aware you’re using them

  • Protects ego from anxiety

  • Can be healthy (sublimation) or unhealthy (denial, projection) depending on usage

Trait Theory

• Theory of personality that focuses on stable, measurable characteristics that define a person

  • Personality = a collection of traits that are stable over time

• Cardinal traits: dominant traits that define a person

• Central traits: general characteristics found in everyone

• Secondary traits: situational traits (less obvious)

Big Five Personality Theory (OCEAN)

• Model that describes personality using five broad traits: openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism

1. Openness

   1. Curious, imaginative, creative, open to new experiences

2. Conscientiousness

   1. Organized, responsible, dependable

3. Extraversion

   1. Outgoing, energetic, sociable

4. Agreeableness

   1. Friendly, compassionate, cooperative

5. Neuroticism

   1. Tendency to experience negative emotions, emotionally

• EXAM

  • Each trait exists on a spectrum (low-high)

  • Traits predict behavior across situations

  • Often measured with personality tests

Humanistic Personality Theory

• Personality develops through personal growth and the desire to reach one’s full potential

• Maslow: believed people are motivated to reach self-actualization (best possible self)

• Rogers: believed personality develops through self-concept and acceptance from others

• Free will

  • People make their own choices, not controlled only by instincts or environment

• Self-concept

  • How you see yourself (real self: who you are v.s ideal self: who you want to be)

• E.x student works hard in school because they want to be the best version of themselves, not because of rewards or punishment

Rogers’ Self Theory

• Personality develops from self-concept and acceptance from others

• Congruence (real self ≈ ideal self) v.s Incongruence (real self ≠ ideal self)

• E.x if student feels accepted by family/friends they are more likely to develop a positive self-concept

Maslow’s Self-Actualization Theory

• People are motivated to reach their full potential after basic needs are satisfied

• Cannot focus on self-actualization until lower needs are met

• EXAM

  • Part of humanistic psychology

  • Personal growth, free will, positive human nature

Social-Cognitive Theory

• Personality is shaped by the interaction of thoughts, behavior and environment

  • People learn by watching others and thinking about what they see

  • Observational learning

• Personality shaped by thoughts (cognition), behavior, environment

  • All three influence each others

• Belief in your ability to succeed

  • High self efficacy: I can do this

  • Low self efficacy: I can’t do this

• E.x student studies harder because they believe they can succeed (self-efficacy), they saw others succeed (observational learning)

Reciprocal Determinism

• Behavior, personal factors, and environment influence each other

  • Part of Social-cognitive theory

• E.x student think “i am good at math”, behavior: studies more, environment: gets praise from teacher

• EXAM

  • Reciprocal = back and forth (each part influences each other)

Self-Efficacy Theory

• Belief in one’s ability to succeed influences behavior and performance

• Self efficacy: how much you believe you can do something successfully

• E.x student A believes they can do well on the test = studies harder and tries, student B thinks they will fail = gives up sooner

  • Student A has higher self-efficacy

• Affects motivation, effort, confidence, success

Projection v.s Objective tests

• Respond to ambiguous stimuli, and your answers reveal unconscious thoughts or feelings

  • No clear right or wrong answer, you “project your inner thoughts onto the stimulus

• E.x. inkblot test

• What you see reflects you

• Pros: can reveal hidden emotions/unconscious thoughts, Cons: less reliable

• Projective = interpreted responses, Objective = scored responses

8. Intelligence Theories

Spearman’s g Factor

• Intelligence includes one general mental ability that influences performance on many tasks

  • Believes that people who do well in one mental task usually does well in other mental tasks

• g (general intelligence): overall mental ability

  • Affects problem solving, learning, reasoning, memory

• E.x student is good at math, reading, science = high g

• Believed intelligence is mostly one general ability not many separate abilities

Thurstone’s Primary Mental Abilities

• Intelligence is made up of several different mental abilities instead of one general intelligence

  • Disagrees with Spearman

• Seven primary mental abilities

  • Verbal comprehension: understanding words and language

  • Word fluency: producing words quickly

  • Number ability: working with numbers

  • Spatial ability: understanding shapes and space

  • Associative memory: remembering information

  • Perceptual speed: quickly noticing details

  • Reasoning: solving problems logically

• E.x student is good at math but not reading

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

• Intelligence consists of multiple independent intelligences

• 8 intelligences

  • Linguistic (words, reading, writing), Logical/Mathematical (reasoning, man, problem solving), Spatial (visualizing, maps, design), Musical (rhythm, pitch, instruments), Bodily/Kinesthetic (physical coordination, movement), Interpersonal (understanding others), Intrapersonal (understanding yourself), Naturalistic (recognizing patterns in nature

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

• Intelligence has three distinct but related components

1. Analytical

   1. Problem-solving, logical reasoning, academic skills, measured by IQ test

2. Creative

   1. Ability to adapt to new situations, thinking outside the box, generating new ideas

3. Practical

   1. Applying knowledge to real-word situations, adapting to everyday life knowing how to handle real-life problems

Emotional Intelligence Theory

• Ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions effectively

• EXAM

  • Reading people well, controlling emotional reactions

  • Handling conflict effectively, being socially skilled

Nature v.s Nurture

• What shapes human behavior and development more: biology or environment

• Nature: genetics/biology, Nurture: environment and experience

• Most psychologists agree it’s both working together, not one or the other

9. Social Psychology Theories

Attribution Theory

• How people interpret and explain the causes of behavior, both their own and others

1. Internal (dispositional) attribution

   1. Caused by personality, traits, effort, attitude

   2. Ex. “she failed because she’s lazy”

2. External (situational) attribution

   1. Caused by environment or circumstances

   2. E.x “She failed because the test was unfair”

• EXAM

  • Blaming personality instead of situation

  • Explaining behavior as traits v.s environment

  • Protecting self-esteem by blaming outside factors

Fundamental Attribution Error

• Tendency to overestimate personality (internal) causes and underestimate situational (external) causes when explaining other people’s behavior

  • When someone does something, we assume “that’s just who they are” instead of “maybe something happened to them”

• We see the person, not situation

• We assume behavior reflects character

  • EXAM

    • blames personality instead of situation

    • Underestimates external factors

    • overestimates dispositional causes

Self-Serving Bias

• Attribute successes to internal factors (personality, effort, ability, etc), attribute failures to external factors (luck, other people, situation, etc)

  • E.x “I succeeded because I'm awesome.” “I failed because the situation was unfair”

• Self-esteem, confidence, mental health

• EXAM

  • About yourself

  • Fundamental attribution error about others

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

• We feel psychological discomfort when we hold two conflicting thoughts or when our behavior contradicts our beliefs

  • Thoughts and actions don’t match, feel uncomfortable, try to fix it

• E.x “smoking is bad for my health" but you smoke

  • Creates dissonance (mental discomfort)

  • Might quite smoking

• Ways to reduce dissonance: change behavior, change belief, add a new justification

• EXAM

  • Feeling uncomfortable after acting against beliefs

  • Justifying behavior

  • Changing attitudes to match behavior

Social Identity Theory

• Explains how our self-concept is shaped by the groups we belong to

  • Part of who you are comes from your group memberships

• Ingroup bias

  • View our own group more positively, give our group credit for success, blame other groups more easily

• Boosts self-esteem, provides identity, makes us feel connected

• EXAM

  • Ingroup v.s outgroup

  • Group-based self-esteem

  • Favoring your group

  • Prejudice from group identity

Mere Exposure Effect

• Tendency to develop a preference for things simply because we are repeatedly exposed to them

  • E.x song you didn’t like start sounding good after hearing it many times

• Makes things feel familiar, familiar things feel safer, safety increases positive feelings

• EXAM

  • Repeated exposure increasing liking

  • Advertising repetition

  • Growing preference just from familiarity

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

• Getting someone to agree to a small request first makes them more likely to agree to a larger request later

• After agreeing to the small request people think “i must care about this issue” “i’m the type of person who supports this”

• EXAM

  • Small request first, larger request later

  • Gradual commitment, consistency

Door-in-the-Face Technique

• Large request first (likely be refused), then smaller more reasonable request

  • Second request feels like a compromise

• Reciprocity: when someone “backs down” from a big request, we feel pressure to meet them halfway

Normative Social Influence

• Someone conforms to a group to be liked, accepted, or avoid rejection

  • Change behavior because you care about social approval

  • E.x dressing a certain way to match your friend group

• Want to be liked, public compliance, “I don’t want to stand out”

Informational Social Influence

• Someone conforms because they believe others are correct and have better information

  • You change your behavior because you think the group knows better than you

  • E.x trying a restaurant because it’s crowded and you assume it must be good

• Want to be correct, private acceptance, happens in ambiguous situations

Groupthink

• When a group makes a bad or irrational decision because members value harmony and agreement over critical thinking

  • Desire for consensus overrides realistic evaluation of alternatives

  • E.x a group of students agrees on a weak project idea because no one wants to challenge the “popular” person’s suggestion

Deindividuation

• Loss of self-awareness and self-restraint that can occur in group situations, leading people to act in ways they normally wouldn't

• People feel anonymous in a group

  • More likely to lose personal responsibility, follow group behavior, and act impulsively or aggressively

• EXAM

  • loss of self awareness, impulsive behavior, happens in crowds

Bystander Effect

• People are less likely to help someone in an emergency where other people are present

  • More people = less likely someone is to help

• Diffusion of responsibility, pluralistic ignorance, evaluation apprehension

Social Facilitation

• People perform better on simple or well-learned tasks when others are watching, but worse on difficult or new tasks

  • Presence of others increases arousal which improved performance on easy tasks but hurts performance on hard tasks

Social Loafing

• Individuals put in less effort when working in a group than when working alone

  • When responsibility is shared, individual effort decreases

• Diffusion of responsibility, lack of individual accountability, belief that individual effort won’t be noticed

Conformity

• When a person changes their behavior, beliefs or attitudes to match those of a group

  • Change to “fit in” with others

• Why: want to be liked (normative social influence), want to be correct (informational social influence)

Obedience

• Person follows direct orders form someone in a position of authority

• Why: Authority figures carry power or status, people feel pressure to comply or avoid consequences

• Obedience = following authority, conformity = following group

Attitude behavior gap

• People's actions do not always match their attitudes or beliefs

  • What you say ≠ what you actually do

• Why: habits are stronger than intentions, social pressure/convenience, lack of self-control/motivation, situational factors (time, stress, environment)

  • Often linked with cognitive dissonance

Disorders

Unit 7: Clinical Psychology

7.4 Anxiety Disorders

Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

• Excessive, persistent, and uncontrollable worry about everyday life events

• Worry is chronic, anxiety is not tied to one specific thing (unlike phobias)

• Person often feels on edge most of the time, difficulty controlling the worry

• Symptoms: restlessness, fatigue, difficulty concentrating, irritability, muscle tension, sleep problems

• GAD = vague, constant worry about many things, Phobia = intense fear of a specific object or situation

• GAD = ongoing anxiety, Panic disorder = sudden, intense panic attacks

  • E.x someone constantly worries about school, health, family, future even when there is no immediate reason, and they can’t “turn it off”

• Causes:

  • Biological: genetic predisposition, overactive amygdala

  • Cognitive: tendency to expect the worst

  • Environmental: stress, trauma

• Treatments:

  • Cognitive therapy: helps patients identify and challenge irrational “worst case scenario” thinking

  • Medications: SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) (like fluoxetine) used long-term

  • Relaxation techniques, lifestyle changes

Panic Disorder

• Recurrent, unexpected panic attacks and ongoing fear of having more attacks

  • Panic attack: sudden surge of intense fear or discomfort that peaks within minutes

• Unexpected panic attacks (not tied to specific trigger), persistent worry about future attacks, behavioral changes (avoiding places/situations)

• Symptoms: rapid heart rate, shortness of breath, chest pain, dizziness, sweating, trembling, feeling like your choking or losing control, fear of dying

• Panic disorder = attacks are unpredictable, Phobia = fear tied to a specific trigger

  • E.x. A person suddenly feels intense fear while sitting in class: heart racing, can’t breath, thinks they are dying. They start avoiding school because they fear another attack

• Causes:

  • Biological: sensitive “fight or flight” system

  • Cognitive: misinterpreting physical sensations (“i’m dying”)

  • Learning: conditioning from past panic experiences

• Treatments:

  • Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT): teaches patients to reinterpret panic symptoms

  • Exposure therapy: gradually exposes person to panic sensations to reduce fear

  • Medications: SSRIs (short term)

  • Breathing retraining

Separation Anxiety Disorder

• Excessive fear or anxiety about being separated from attachment figures

• Fear is developmentally inappropriate (too intense for age)

• Strong distress when anticipating or experiencing separation

• Persistent (typically at least 4 weeks in children, longer in adults)

• Symptoms: extreme distress when leaving home/caregivers, constant worry about losing attachment figures, refusal to go to school or be alone, clinging behavior, nightmares about separation, physical complaints when separation is expected (headaches, etc)

• Normal = young children may briefly fear separation, Disorder = intense, persistent, interferes with daily life

• Separation anxiety = fear focused on attachment figures, GAD = broad, generalized worry about many things

  • E.x A child refuses to go to school because they are terrified something bad will happen to their parents while they’re away, and experiences stomachaches every morning before leaving

• Causes:

  • Biological: temperament (high anxiety sensitivity

  • Environmental: overprotective parenting, stressful events

  • Learning: past experiences of separation or loss

• Treatments:

  • Behavioral therapy: gradual separation exposure

  • Cognitive behavioral therapy: helps reduce catastrophic thinking

  • Family therapy: helps caregivers avoid reinforcing anxiety

  • Reassurance + routines

Specific Phobia

• Intense, irrational fear of a specific object or situation that leads to avoidance

• Symptoms: immediate fear or anxiety when exposed to trigger, fear is excessive and unreasonable compared to actual threat. Person often avoids the object/situation, causes distress or interferes with daily life

• Common triggers: animal, natural environment, situational, blood injection injury

  • E.x. someone refuses to go hiking because they have an extreme fear of snakes, even in areas where snakes are rare

• Specific phobia = fear tied to one specific trigger, GAD = broad, generalized worry about many things

• Causes:

  • Biological: genetic predisposition, heightened fear response

  • Environmental: traumatic experience with the object/situation

  • Learning: classical conditioning (learned fear), Operant conditioning (avoidance reinforces fear)

• Treatments:

  • Exposure therapy (most effective): gradual or direct exposure to feared object/situations

    • Systematic desensitization, flooding (immediate exposure in safe environment)

  • Modeling: watching others interact safely with feared object

  • Cognitive behavioral therapy: challenges irrational fear beliefs

  • Medication (rare): short term anti-anxiety meds

Social Anxiety Disorder

• Excessive fear or anxiety of social situations where you might be judged, embarrassed, or rejected

• Fear is out of proportion to the actual situation

• Symptoms: avoids social situations, endures them with extreme anxiety, physical symptoms, overthinking social interactions

• EXAM: fear is irrational or excessive compared to actual threat, causes significant distress or impairment, persistent

  • E.x. Someone is scared of public speaking

• Causes:

  • Biological: overactive amygdala, genetic disposition, neurotransmitter imbalance (especially serotonin)

  • Environmental: negative social experiences, overly critical or controlling parenting, lack of social exposure/skills growing up

  • Cognitive: negative thinking patterns, high self-focus in social situations, overestimating how bad things will go

  • Behavioral: avoidance reinforces fear, conditioning

• *Think biopsychosocial model

• Treatments:

  • Cognitive behavioral therapy: changes negative self-beliefs

  • Exposure therapy: practicing social situations

  • Social skills training: learning eye contact, conversation skills

  • SSRIs: severe cases

  • Group therapy: safe environment to practice social interactions

Agoraphobia

• Intense fear or anxiety about being in situations where escape might be difficult or help wouldn’t be available if panic occurs

  • Scared of being trapped, helpless, or unable to escape

• Situations: crowds, malls, public, open spaces or enclosed spaces, being outside alone

• Symptoms: avoidance of these situations, needs a companion to go out, panic-like symptoms (rapid heartbeat, etc)

• EXAM: fear is excessive/unreasonable, causes significant impairment in daily life, persistent

• Causes:

  • Biological: genetic predisposition to anxiety disorders, overactive amygdala

  • Psychological factors: fear conditioning, catastrophic thinking, heightened sensitivity to bodily sensations

  • Behavioral: avoidance of feared places, avoidance reduces anxiety short-term but reinforces the fear long-term

  • Social/Environmental factors: traumatic or embarrassing panic attack in public, stressful life events increasing overall anxiety levels, learned fear from observing others anxiety or reactions

• Panic - avoidance - more fear - more avoidance

• Treatments:

  • Exposure therapy (key treatment): gradual exposure to feared places

  • CBT: addresses fear of having panic attacks in public

  • Systematic desensitization: relaxation + gradual exposure hierarchy

  • SSRIs: often used for long-term symptom reduction

  • Support systems: sometimes a trusted person accompanies initial exposures

7.5 Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

• Unwanted, intrusive, thoughts, and repetitive behaviors or mental acts performed to reduce anxiety caused by those thoughts

  • E.x. “my hands are contaminated” - excessive handwashing

• Symptoms: feeling anxious or distressed when obsessions occur, performing rituals according to strict rules or patterns, temporary relief after completing compulsions, followed by return of anxiety

• Causes:

  • Biological: genetics, overactivity in basal ganglia, serotonin imbalance

  • Psychological: maladaptive thought patterns, inflated responsibility, overestimation of danger, difficulty tolerating uncertainty

  • Behavioral: negative reinforcement loop, compulsion reduces anxiety temporarily, reinforces compulsion (makes it stronger over time), learned associations between thoughts and danger

  • Environmental: Stressful or traumatic experiences can trigger or worsen symptoms, learned behaviors from environment

• EXAM: obsessions = thoughts, compulsions = behaviors

  • The disorder is maintained because compulsions relieve anxiety short-term but strengthen the cycle long-term

  • Treatments:

    • Exposure and response prevention (ERP) (best behavioral treatment): patient is exposed to obsession trigger but prevented from doing compulsion

    • CBT: challenges irrational obsessive thoughts

    • SSRIs (antidepressants): help reduce obsessive thoughts

    • Brain stimulation: extreme cases

Body Dysmorphic Disorder

• A person is excessively preoccupied with a perceived flaw in their appearance that is either minor or not observable to others, causing distress and repetitive behaviors

• Symptoms: preoccupation with a perceived flaw in appearance, repeated comparing appearance to others, excessive covering up “flaws”, strong distress shame or embarrassment, difficulty focusing on anything else

• Causes:

  • Biological: possible serotonin involvement, brian activity differences in areas linked to perception and self-evaluation

  • Psychological: distorted body image, cognitive distortions like magnifications, low self-esteem and high self-criticism

  • Behavioral: repetitive checking, seeking reassurance, behaviors temporarily reduce anxiety but maintain the disorder

  • Social/Environmental: media and social media pressure about appearance, bullying or teasing about looks, cultural emphasis on beauty standards

• EXAM: BDD = focus on imagined or minor physical flaw, eating disorders = focus on weight, OCD = obsessions + compulsions not centered on looks

• Treatments:

  • CBT: challenges distorted body image beliefs

  • SSRIs: reduce obsessive focus on appearance

  • Exposure therapy: reduces avoidance of mirrors/social situations

  • Avoidance of cosmetic reinforcement

Hoarding Disorder

• Persistent difficulty discarding possessions, leading to excessive accumulation of items that cluster living spaces and impair daily functioning

• Symptoms: difficulty throwing away items, strong emotional attachment to possessions, distress when attempting to discard items, avoidance of letting others touch or remove belongings

• Causes:

  • Biological: possible abnormalities in prefrontal cortex, may overlap genetically with obsessive-related disorders

  • Psychological: beliefs that items have strong emotional or practical value, difficulty making decisions and categorizing importance, anxiety about losing important memories tied to objects

  • Behavioral: saving items that reduces anxiety - reinforces hoarding behavior

  • Cognitive: poor organization and categorization skills, overestimation of future need for items

  • Environment: Stressful life events, learned saving behaviors from family or environment

• Treatments:

  • CBT (most effective): targets beliefs about saving items

  • Skills training: decision:making and organizational skills

  • Exposure therapy: practice discarding items gradually

  • SSRIs: sometimes used, but less effective than CBT

• EXAM:

  • hoarding disorder = difficulty discarding + cluttered living space, OCD = obsessions + compulsions, not necessarily clutter

  • Hoarding is its own disorder in DSM-5 not just a subtype of OCD

Trichotillomania

• Recurrent irresistible urges to pull out one’s own hair resulting in noticeable hair loss and distress or impairment

• Symptoms: repeated pulling out of hair, feeling relief after pulling, difficulty stopping the behavior despite wanting to, sometimes occurs during stress, boredom, or anxiety

• Causes:

  • Biological: possible genetic links with obsessive-related disorders, involvement of brain circuits related to impulse control and habit formation

  • Psychological: urges build tension - pulling reduces tension, anxiety or stress triggers the behavior

  • Behavioral: negative reinforcement (pulling hair reduces unpleasant feelings - behavior continues)

  • Environment: stressful situations or emotional distress, learned coping mechanism

• EXAM: Part of obsessive-related disorder spectrum

• Treatments:

  • Habit reverse training (HRT): key behavioral therapy: replaces hair-pulling with competing response (like clenching fists)

  • CBT: addresses triggers and urges

  • SSRIs: sometimes used

  • Stress management techniques

Excoriation Disorder

• Recurrent compulsive picking at one’s skin resulting in lesion, distress, and difficulty stopping the behavior

• Symptoms: repeated picking at skin, tension or urge before picking, temporary relief after picking, difficulty resisting the behavior despite attempts to stop

• Causes:

  • Biological: possible genetic overlap with obsessive-related and impulse control disorders, brain differences in habit and reward systems

  • Psychological: anxiety or stress increases urge to pick, perfectionism or focus on perceived skin “imperfections”, tension builds - picking relieves it (reinforcement cycle

  • Behavioral: negative reinforcement (picking reduces anxiety or discomfort, so behavior continues

  • Environmental factors: stressful life events or boredom, triggers like noticing small skin irregularities

• Treatments:

  • Habit reversal training (HRT): main treatment

  • CBT: reduces

  • Stimulus control: removing triggers (like mirrors, picking tools

  • SSRIs: sometimes helpful

7.6 Depressive Disorders

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)

• Persistent depressed mood and loss of interest, along with other symptoms that impair daily functioning for at least 2 weeks

• Symptoms: depressed mood, loss of interest or pleasure, change in appetite or weight, sleep disturbances, fatigue or low energy, feeling worthlessness, difficulty concentrating, recurrent thoughts of death

• Causes:

  • Biological: genetic predisposition, low levels of serotonin, norepinephrine, dopamine, brain differences in mood regulation

  • Psychological: negative thinking, learned helplessness, low self-esteem

  • Behavioral: withdrawal reduces positive reinforcement - deepens depression

  • Environment: stress, trauma, lack of support

• 2+weeks+sadness+loss of interest = MDD

• Bipolar disorder - includes mania

• Persistent depressive disorder - longer-lasting but less severe

• Treatments:

  • CBT: changes negative thinking patterns - improves mood

  • SSRIs: antidepressant medications (increase serotonin levels)

  • Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): used for severe cases when other treatments don’t work

  • Behavioral activation: encouraging engagement in positive/rewarding activities

  • Lifestyle factors: exercise, sleep, social support

Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia)

• Chronic depressed mood lasting most of the day, more days than not, for at least 2 year (1 yr in children/teens), with less severe but longer-lasting symptoms than major depression

• Symptoms: ongoing low mood, low energy or fatigue, low self-esteem, poor concentration or difficulty making decisions, changes in appetite, sleep problems, feelings of hopelessness

• Causes:

  • Biological: genetic predisposition, neurotransmitter imbalances

  • Psychological: chronic negative thinking patterns, low self-esteem

  • Behavioral: reduced engagement in rewarding activities

  • Environment: long-term stress or difficult life conditions, lack of support

• Treatments:

  • CBT: helps break long-term, negative thought patterns

  • SSRIs: antidepressant meds similar to MDD

  • Long-term therapy: focus on chronic patterns and coping strategies

  • Lifestyle changes: regular routines, exercise, social connection

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

• Symptoms occur at specific times of the year, most commonly during fall and winter when daylight hours are shorter

• Symptoms: depressed mood, low energy and fatigue, increased sleep, increased appetite, weight gain, loss of interest in activities, difficulty concentrating

• Causes:

  • Biological: reduced sunlight - disrupts circadian rhythms, decreased serotonin levels, increased melatonin production

  • Environmental: shorter daylight hours in fall/winter, less exposure to natural sunlight

• Treatments:

  • Light therapy: exposure to bright artificial light to mimic sunlight

  • SSRIs, CBT

  • Lifestyle changes: more daylight exposure, regular sleep, exercise

Disruptive Mood Dysregulation Disorder (less common)

• Childhood disorder marked by severe, chronic irritability and frequent temper outbursts that are out of proportion to the situation

• Symptoms: severe temper outbursts, occur 3 or more times a week, persistently irritable or angry mood

• Symptoms present for at least 12 months, diagnosed between ages 6-18

• EXAM: DMDD ≠ Bipolar Disorder

• Causes:

  • Combination of genetic vulnerability and environmental stress, difficulty regulating emotions

• Treatments:

  • CBT: emotion regulation, coping skills

  • Parent training: behavior management strategies

  • Medication: stimulants, antidepressants, depending on symptoms

• *think “constant anger + explosive outburst in kids”

7.7 Bipolar and Related Disorders

Bipolar I Disorder

• Presence of at least one full manic episode, often alternating with episodes of depression

• Manic episode (KEY CONCEPT):

  • Inflated self-esteem or grandiosity

  • Decreased need for sleep

  • More talkative, racing thoughts

  • Increased goal-directed activity or agitation, distracted

  • Risky behaviors

• Depressive episodes (common but not required for diagnosis)

  • Persistent sadness, loss of interest, fatigue, sleep/appetite changes, etc

• Mania causes major impairment, may include psychosis (loss of touch with reality)

• EXAM: Bipolar I = full mania required

• Causes:

  • Strong genetic component

  • Brain chemistry (neurotransmitter imbalance)

  • Stress can trigger episodes

• Treatments:

  • Mood stabilizers (E.x. lithium)

  • Antipsychotic medications

  • Psychotherapy (E.x. CBT, psychoeducation)

• *think mania = high highs (can be extreme)”

Bipolar II Disorder

• Involves at least one hypomanic episode and at least one major depressive episode, without ever having a full manic episode

• Hypomanic Episode (KEY CONCEPT)

  • Elevated or irritable mood, but less severe than mania (lasts at least 4 consecutive days

  • Overlap symptoms with mania: increased energy, decreased need for sleep, talkative, racing thoughts, distracted, elevated confidence)

  • No psychosis and does not cause major impairment or require hospitalization

• Major depressive episode (required)

  • Persistent sadness or loss of interest, changes in sleep, appetite, energy, feelings of worthlessness, or difficulty concentrating (must last at least 2 weeks)

• EXAM:

  • Bipolar II ≠ Bipolar I Disorder

  • Bipolar II = hypomania + depression, Bipolar I = full mania (more severe)

• Depression lasts longer and more frequent than hypomania

• Hypomania may seem “productive” but is still abnormal

• Causes:

  • Genetic factors

  • Neurotransmitter imbalance

  • Stress triggers episodes

• Treatments:

  • Mood stabilizers: E.x. lithium

  • Antidepressants: used carefully

  • Psychotherapy: CBT, coping strategies

• * think lower highs (hypomania + deep lows (depression)

Cyclothymic Disorder

• Frequent mood swings between hypomanic symptoms and mild depressive symptoms, but not severe enough to meet criteria for Bipolar I or II

• Symptoms: periods of hypomanic symptoms, periods of depressive symptoms, symptoms are less intense than full hypermania or major depression, mood swings are chronic and ongoing

  • At least a yr in children (2 yrs in adults)

  • Symptoms present at least half the time

  • No symptom-free period longer than 3 months

• Cyclothymic = milder but long-lasting mood swings

• Less severe than bipolar disorders, but can still impact functioning

  • May develop into bipolar over time

• Causes:

  • Genetic predisposition

  • Brain chemistry (neurotransmitters)

  • Environmental stressors

• Treatments:

  • Psychotherapy: especially CBT

  • Mood stabilizers: in some cases

  • Lifestyle regulation (sleep, routines)

• * think “chronic, milder ups and downs”

7.8 Schizophrenia Spectrum and Psychotic Disorders

Schizophrenia

• Distorted thinking, perceptions, emotions, and behavior, often involving a loss of contact with reality (psychosis)

• Core symptoms (VERY TESTED):

1. Positive Symptoms (ADD something abnormal):

• Hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech, disorganized speech, disorganized or abnormal behavior

1. Negative symptoms (REMOVE normal behavior):

• Reduced emotional expression, lack of motivation, social withdrawal, reduced speech

• Symptoms persist for at least 6 months, includes at least 1 month of active symptoms

• Causes:

  • Biological: genetics, brain structure differences

  • Neurotransmitters: especially excess dopamine activity

  • EnvironmentL prenatal issues, stress, trauma

• Treatment:

  • Antipsychotic medications: reduces dopamine activity

  • Psychotherapy: support, coping skills, community support programs

• Schizophrenia ≠ “multiple personalities”

  • About psychosis, not split identity

• * think “lost touch with reality (hallucinations+delusions)”

Schizoaffective Disorder

• Combines symptoms of schizophrenia with mood disorder symptoms (depression or mania)

• Symptoms:

  • Psychotic symptoms: hallucinations, delusions

  • Mood episodes: major depressive episodes and/or manic episodes

• There must be at least 2 weeks of psychotic symptoms without any mood symptoms

  • Separates it from mood disorders with psychotic features

• Can significantly affect thinking, mood and daily functioning

• Often involves cycles of mood symptoms+ongoing psychosis

• Causes:

  • Genetic factors

  • Brain chemistry: dopamine imbalance

  • Environmental stressors

• Treatments:

  • Antipsychotic medications: for psychosis

  • Mood stabilizers or antidepressants: for mood symptoms

  • Psychotherapy and support

• Schizoaffective = psychosis + mood disorder together

• Schizophrenia = psychosis only (no major mood episodes required)

• Mood disorders with psychotic features = psychosis only during mood episodes

• * think “schizo (psychosis) + affective (mood)”

Brief Psychotic Disorder

• Sudden onset of psychotic symptoms that last for a short period and then fully resolve

• SymptomsL delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, grossly disorganized or abnormal behavior

• Lasts at least 1 day but less than 1 month, person returns to previous level of functioning (VERY TESTED)

  • Onset: sudden (often triggered by extreme stress or trauma)

• Causes: severe stress, biological vulnerability (genetics, brain chemistry

• Treatments:

  • Short-term antipsychotic medications

  • Psychological support/therapy

  • Often revolves completely with treatment

• EXAM:

  • Brief psychotic disorder = short duration (<1 month)

  • Schizophrenia = long-term (6+ months)

  • Schizoaffective disorder = psychosis + mood disorder

• * think “short, sudden break from reality”

7.9 Trauma- and Stressor-Related Disorders

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

• Occurs after exposure to a traumatic event, leading to persistent psychological distress and impaired functioning

• Symptoms: intrusion (flashbacks, nightmares, intrusive, distressing memories), avoidance (thoughts, feelings, conversations, places, people associated with trauma), negative changes in mood & cognitions, arousal and reactivity (hyperarousal)

  • Symptoms last more than 1 month

  • Causes significant distress or impairment

  • Occurs after a traumatic event

• Biological:

  • Overactive amygdala

  • Reduced hippocampal function

  • Stress hormones dysregulations

• Learning:

  • Classical conditioning: neutral cues become associated with trauma

  • Operant conditioning: avoidance is negatively reinforced

• Cognitive:

  • Maladaptive beliefs (“ the world is unsafe”)

  • Memory processing problems

• Treatments:

  • CBT: changes negative thought patterns

  • Exposure therapy: gradual confrontation of trauma-related cues

  • Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing

  • SSRIs: sertraline, fluoxetine

Acute Stress Disorder

• Occurs shortly after exposure to a traumatic event, with symptoms similar to PTSD but lasting for a shorter duration

• Symptoms: same as PTSD

  • Symptoms occur 3 days to 1 month after trauma

  • Must have 9+ symptoms across categories

  • Causes significant distress or impairment

  • If symptoms last longer than 1 month may become PTSD

• Treatments:

• Early intervention: trauma-focused CBT, stress management techniques

• Medication (less common): short-term use of anti-anxiety meds or sleep aids

• *dissociation

7.10 Dissociative Disorders

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

• Presence of two or more distinct personality states that recurrently take control of behavior, along with memory gaps that are too extensive to be explained by normal forgetting

• Symptoms: multiple identities (each may have different names, traits, voices, or behavior), Amnesia (gaps in recall of everyday events, personal info, or trauma), disruption of identity (sense of self is fragmented), feels detached from oneself, feeling the world is unreal

  • 2 or more distinct identities/personality states

  • Recurrent gaps in memory

  • Causes distress or impairment

• Causes:

  • Often linked to severe childhood trauma or abuse

  • Dissociation acts as a coping mechanism to separate from trauma

  • Symptoms may be influenced by therapist expectations or media

  • Role-playing or reinforcement of identities

  • Differences in brain activity, but not fully understood

• EXAM: dissociation - defense mechanism where a person disconnects from thoughts, memories, or identity to reduce psychological distress

• Treatments:

  • Psychotherapy (long-term): integration of identities or improved coordination

  • CBT techniques: managing symptoms and coping

Dissociative Amnesia

• Inability to recall important personal information usually related to trauma or stress, that is too extensive to be explained by ordinary forgetting

• Symptoms: memory loss, sudden onset, memory reversible, intact general functioning

• Types of dissociative Amnesia:

1. Localized

   1. Inability to recall events during a specific time period (most common)

2. Selective

   1. Can recall some, but not all, events from a period

3. Generalized (rare)

   1. Loss of memory for one’s entire life/identity

4. Continuous

   1. Ongoing inability to form new memories about current events

• Causes:

  • Trauma-based (most accepted)

  • Retrieval failure of traumatic memories

  • No clear brain damage, differs from neurological amnesia

• Treatments:

  • Psychotherapy: helps recover memories safely, addresses underlying trauma

  • CBT: coping strategies and emotional regulation

• EXAM: “can’t remember personal trauma”

7.11 Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders (sometimes included)

Somatic Symptom Disorder

• A person experiences significant physical symptoms along with excessive thoughts, feelings, or behaviors related to those symptomes

  • Symptoms are real, but psychological response is disproportionate

• Symptoms: Physical: pain, headaches, stomach issues, fatigue, excessive concern about symptoms, high health-related anxiety, disruption of daily life

  • Persistent symptoms (6+ months)

  • Disproportionate thoughts/behaviors about the symptoms

  • Not fully explained by a medical condition or reaction is excessive relative to it

• Causes:

• Misinterpretation of normal bodily sensations, catastrophic thinking

• Attention and reinforcement

• Heightened sensitivity to bodily sensations

• Treatments:

• CBT: helps challenge catastrophic thinking, reduces symptom focus

• Stress management

• Sometimes SSRIs for anxiety/depression

• EXAM: symptoms are not faked, focus is excessive concern

Illness Anxiety Disorder

• Preoccupation with having or developing a serious illness, despite having little or no physical symptoms

  • mainly about fear of illness, not the symptoms themselves

• Symptoms: minimal or no somatic symptoms, high health anxiety, misinterpretation of normal sensations, excessive health behaviors or avoidance

  • Preoccupation with illness for 6+ months

  • Disproportionate anxiety about health

  • Not better explained by another disorder

• Causes:

  • Catastrophic thinking about health

  • Selective attention to bodily sensations

  • Reinforcement of worry

  • Possible predisposition to anxiety

• Treatments:

  • CBT: challenge irrational health beliefs, reduce chacking/avoidance behaviors

  • SSRIs may help with anxiety

7.12 Feeding and Eating Disorders

Anorexia Nervosa

• Eating disorder characterized by significantly low body weight, intense fear of gaining body weight and distorted body image

  • May involve excessive exercise, fasting, or purging behaviors

• Symptoms: extreme dieting, dramatic weight loss, obsession with body image, denial of seriousness of low body weight, social withdrawal and irritability

• Causes:

  • Biological: genetics, abnormal neurotransmitter activity

  • Psychological: perfectionism, anxiety, low self-esteem

  • Social/Cultural pressures: thin ideal, media influence

• Treatments:

  • Nutritional rehabilitation: restoring healthy weight

  • CBT

  • Family therapy (especially for adolescents

• EXAM: anorexia = severe weight loss + restriction of food intake

Bulimia Nervosa

• Eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors to prevent weight gain

  • Often feels a loss of control during binge episodes

  • Unlike anorexia nervosa, body weight is often normal or slightly above average

• Symptoms: repeated episodes of eating unusually large amounts of food in a short time, feeling unable to stop, strong concern with body weight and shape, shame/guilt around eating, frequent bathroom use after meals

• Causes:

  • Biological: genetics, neurotransmitter imbalance

  • Psychological: low self-esteem, depression, perfectionism

  • Social/cultural: pressure about appearance and thinness

• Treatments:

  • CBT: most common

  • Nutritional counselling

  • Family therapy: in some cases

  • SSRIs: especially for related depression/anxiety and reducing binge-purge cycles

Binge-Eating Disorder

• Recurrent episodes of binge eating without compensatory behaviors

  • Person eats unusually amounts of food in a short period and feels a loss of control

  • Unlike Bulimia nervosa, there is not regular purging

    • No vomiting, laxatives, or excessive exercise to compensate

• Symptoms: eating quickly, until uncomfortably full, large amounts when not physically hungry

• Causes:

  • Biological: genetics, brian chemistry

  • Psychological: stress, depression, low self-esteem

  • Emotional coping through food, social and environmental influences

• EXAM:

  • Bulimia: bing eating + purging

  • Bing-eating disorder: binge eating without purging

7.13 Personality Disorders

Cluster A (odd/eccentric)

Paranoid

• Persistent distrust and suspicion of others

  • Believes others may be trying to harm, deceive, or exploit them, even without strong evidence

  • Unwilling to trust people and may interpret harmless actions as threatening

• Symptoms: Constant suspicion of others motives, belief that others are lying, cheating, or taking advantage, reluctant to confide in others, holding grudges, reading hidden threats or insults into normal comments

• Causes:

  • Combination of genetics and early childhood experiences

  • Trauma, neglect, or harsh family environments may increase risk

• Treatments:

  • Difficult to treat because the person often does not trust therapists

  • Psychotherapy (talk therapy): main treatment

  • Building trust is major focus

  • Medication may help related anxiety or anger, no specific cure

Schizoid

• Detachment from social relationships and a limited range of emotional expression

  • Prefers to be alone and usually has little interest in close friendships or romantic relationships

  • Often appears emotionally cold, distant or indifferent to praise and criticism

• Symptoms: limited emotional expression (“flat”), little desire for relationships including family, prefers solitary activities

• Cause:

  • Exact cause is unclear

  • Likely combination of genetics and early environmental influences

  • May be linked to family history of personality disorders or schizophrenia-spectrum disorders

• Treatments:

  • Person may not seek help because they often do not feel distressed by isolation

  • Psychotherapy: may help improve social functioning

  • Building trust and communication skills is often the focus

• EXAM:

  • Schizoid: social detachment without hallucinations or delusions

  • Schizophrenia: psychosis involving hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking

Schizotypal

• Odd thinking, unusual beliefs, eccentric behavior, and difficulty forming close relationships

  • May seem socially anxious, suspicious, and uncomfortable in relationships

  • May have unusual perceptions or “magical thinking”, but don’t fully lose touch with reality like in psychotic disorders

• Symptoms: strange or eccentric behavior or appearance, odd beliefs, unusual speech patterns or thoughts, social anxiety and discomfort with close relationships, suspiciousness or mild paranoia, inappropriate or limited emotional expression

• Causes:

  • Likely influenced by genetics and brian differences

  • Often linked to family history of schizophrenia

  • Environmental stress may contribute

• Treatments:

  • Psychotherapy: improve social skills and coping

  • Sometimes low=dose medication for anxiety, depression, or unusual thinking

  • Support for social functioning is important

• EXAM

  • Compare “schizo-” personality disorders

    • Paranoid: distrust and suspicion

    • Schizoid: detached, prefers isolation

    • Schizotypal: odd beliefs+eccentric behavior+social discomfort

Cluster B (dramatic/emotional)

Antisocial

• Disregard for the rights of others, lack of empathy, and violation of social rules or laws

  • Person may be manipulative, deceitful, impulsive, and show little guilt or remorse for harmful actions

  • Sometimes associated with the term “sociopathy” (not the official diagnosis)

• Symptoms: repeated lying or manipulation, aggressive or reckless behavior, breaking rules/laws repeatedly, lack of guilt or remorse, impulsive, irresponsible, difficulty maintaining work or relationships

  • Shows low empathy for others

• Causes;

  • Combination of genetics and environment

  • Childhood abuse, neglect, harsh parenting, or early conduct problems may increase risk

  • Often linked to a history of conduct disorder before age 15

• Treatments:

  • Difficult to treat because the person may not believe they need help

  • Psychotherapy: focus on behavior control and responsibility

  • No specific medication cures it, but some may help with aggression or impulsivity

• EXAM:

  • Antisocial: violates others rights, little remorse

  • Borderline: unstable emotions, fear of abandonment, unstable relationships

Borderline

• Unstable emotions, relationships, self-image, and behavior

  • Person has intense fear of abandonment and may experience rapid mood swings

  • Relationships are often intense and unstable( ”love-hate” pattern)

• Symptoms: fear of abandonment, unstable or intense relationships, rapid mood swings, impulsive or risky behaviors, unstable self-image or identity, strong anger or difficulty controlling anger, feelings of emptiness, emotional instability

• Causes:

  • Combination of genetics, brain differences, and environment

  • Childhood trauma, neglect, or unstable family relationships may increase risk

• Treatment:

  • Dialectical behavior therapy (DBT): type of CBT designed to help people manage intense emotions, reduce harmful behaviors, and improve relationships

  • Other psychotherapy approaches

  • Medication: helps symptoms like anxiety or depression but no single cure

Histrionic

• Personality disorder characterized by excessive emotionality and attention-seeking behavior

  • Person often feels uncomfortable when not the center of attention and may use dramatic, flirtatious or theatrical behavior to gain attention

• Symptoms: strong need to be the centre of attention, inappropriately sexually seductive, rapidly shifting and shallow emotions, easily influenced by others, considers relationships more intimate than they actually are

• Causes

  • Combination of genetics and environment

  • Childhood reinforcement of attention-seeking patterns

  • Temperament and learned behavior patterns

• Treatments:

  • Psychotherapy: main treatment

  • Focus on developing more stable emotions and healthier relationship patterns

  • Medication may be used for anxiety or depression, but does not treat the disorder itself

• EXAM:

  • Narcissistic personality disorder: focuses on superiority, admiration, and lack of empathy

  • Histrionic: focuses on attention-seeking and dramatic emotional expression

Narcissistic

• Grandiosity, need for admiration, and lack of empathy

  • Person has an inflated sense of self-importance and often believes they are superior to others

• Symptoms: exaggerated sense of self-importance, preoccupation with fantasies of success/power, need for admiration and attention, sense of entitlement, lack of empathy, arrogant or dismissive attitudes

• Causes:

  • Combination of genetics and environment

  • Overvaluation or excessive praise in childhood

  • Inconsistent parenting (overindulgence or extreme criticism)

• Treatments:

  • Psychotherapy: main approach

  • Focus on building empathy and realistic self-image

  • Often difficult because individuals may not see their behavior as a problem

Cluster C (anxious/fearful)

Avoidant

• Extreme social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to criticism

  • Person wants social connection but avoids relationships due to fear of rejection or embarrassment

• Symptoms: avoids social situations due to fear of rejection, stong feelings of inadequacy or inferiority, extremely sensitive, reluctance to take personal risks, socially inhibited even though they desire relationships, low self-esteem

• Causes:

  • Combination of genetics and temperament (inborn shyness or anxiety)

  • Early experiences of rejection, criticism, or social anxiety

  • Learned fear of social judgment

• Treatments:

  • CBT: challenge negative beliefs about self and others

  • Social skills training

  • Gradual exposure to social situations

  • Medication: anxiety or depression

• EXAM;

  • Schizoid: does not want social relationships

  • Avoidant: wants relationships but fears rejection and avoids them

Dependent

• Excessive need to be taken care of, leading to submissive and clingy behavior

  • Has difficulty making decisions without reassurance from others and fears being alone or abandoned

• Symptoms: difficulty disagreeing with others, people-pleaser, feels helpless or uncomfortable when alone, quickly seeks a new relationship when one ends

• Causes:

  • Overprotective or controlling parenting

  • Reinforced dependence in childhood

  • Temperament: anxious or insecure attachment stupe

  • Learned helplessness over time

• Treatments:

  • CBT: build independence and confidence

  • Gradual encouragement of decision-making and autonomy

  • Addressing anxiety about separation

  • Medication: anxiety or depression

• EXAM:

  • Avoidant: Fears rejection/criticism and avoids relationships

  • Dependent: fears separation and relies heavily on others for decisions and support

Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder

• Preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control

  • Overly focused on rules, structure, and doing things “the right way”

  • *different than obsessive-compulsive disorder, which involves unwanted intrusive thoughts and compulsions

• Symptoms: extreme perfectionism that interferes with task completion, devotion to work and productivity, inflexible about morals, ethics, or “correct” behavior, overly controlling in personal and social situations, discomfort when things are messy or out of place

• Causes:

  • Genetic predisposition toward anxiety/perfectionism

  • Strict or controlling upbringing

  • Learned need for order and control to reduce anxiety

• Treatment:

  • CBT: reduce rigid thinking patters

  • Learning flexibility and stress management skills

  • Medication: helps with anxiety or obsessive thinking is some cases

7.14 Neurodevelopmental Disorders (teacher-dependent but often included)

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

• Persistent patterns of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interfere with functioning or development

  • Symptoms usually begin in childhood and can continue into adolescence and adulthood

• Symptoms: inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity

• Causes:

  • Strong genetic component

  • Differences in brain activity: especially attention and impulse-control systems

  • Neurotransmitter involvement: especially dopamine and norepinephrine

  • Environmental factors: not the main cause

• Treatments:

  • Stimulant medication: E.x. increase dopamine activity

  • Behavioral therapy: especially for organization and impulse control

  • Classroom supports: structure, routines, reduced distractions

  • Parent training and school interventions

• EXAM: ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder, not an anxiety or personality disorder

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

• Persistent differences in social communication and restricted or repetitive behaviors/interests

  • Called a “spectrum” because symptoms range from mild to severe and vary wildly between individuals

• Diagnostic areas:

1. Social communication differences

   1. Difficulty with social interaction and back-and-forth conversation

   2. Challenges understanding social cues

   3. Difficulty forming or maintaining relationships

2. Restricted/repetitive behaviors

   1. Repetitive movements or speech

   2. Strong need for routines and sameness

   3. Highly focused on intense interests

   4. Sensory sensitivities (sounds, textures, lights)

3. Treatment/support

   1. No cure, but early intervention improves functioning

   2. Behavioral therapies: applied behavior analysis, etc

   3. Speech and occupational therapy

   4. Social skills training

   5. School accommodations and structured routines

• EXAM

  • ASD = social communication differences+repetitive behaviors

  • Not explained by fear (like anxiety disorders) or personality traits alone

Parts of the brain