Persia+Alexander

Cyrus the Great

Born into the Achaemenid family, Cyrus overthrew the Medes and established the Persian Empire.

Cyrus' conquest of Lydia

He defeated King Croesus, gaining wealth and expanding Persian control into western Asia Minor.

Cyrus' interaction with Asiatic Greeks

He inherited control over the Ionian Greek cities but faced resistance; some cities submitted, others rebelled.

Significance of the conquest of Babylon

In 539 BC, Cyrus entered Babylon peacefully, ending Neo-Babylonian rule and presenting himself as a liberator.

Cyrus' treatment of Babylonia

With tolerance; he respected local religions and allowed exiled groups like the Jews to return home.

Features of Pasargadae

It was Cyrus' capital and burial site, featuring gardens, palaces, and his tomb—a symbol of early Persian architecture.

Controversies surrounding Cyrus' death

He died fighting the Massagetae, possibly killed by Queen Tomyris; some accounts differ on the details.

Cambyses II

He conquered Egypt in 525 BC after the Battle of Pelusium.

Herodotus' portrayal of Cambyses

As mad and sacrilegious, accusing him of desecrating temples and killing the Apis bull.

Was Cambyses truly mad?

Uncertain; Egyptian sources are less critical, and Herodotus may have exaggerated for dramatic effect.

Cambyses' death

He died under mysterious circumstances on his return from Egypt—possibly suicide or accidental wound.

Smerdis/Bardiya/Gaumata

A figure who claimed the throne after Cambyses' death; overthrown by Darius—possibly an impostor.

Darius I

He claimed to restore order by killing the usurper Gaumata, with support from Persian nobles.

Darius' reorganization of the Persian Empire

He introduced satrapies, royal roads, standardised currency, and legal reforms.

Darius' major building projects

Construction of Susa, Persepolis, and a canal linking the Nile to the Red Sea.

Darius' expansion of the empire

He conquered Thrace, Macedon, and the Indus Valley, turning it into the wealthy 20th satrapy.

Scythian campaign

A failed attempt to subdue nomadic tribes beyond the Danube; Darius withdrew without success.

Cause of the Ionian Revolt

Ionian dissatisfaction with Persian rule, supported by Athens and Eretria.

Battle of Lade

A naval battle in 494 BC where the Ionian fleet was defeated, ending the revolt.

Consequences of the Ionian Revolt

Harsh reprisals, destruction of Miletus, and Darius' focus on punishing Athens.

Mardonius' expedition to Greece

In 492 BC, storms destroyed his fleet near Mount Athos, and he was forced to retreat.

Battle of Marathon (490 BC)

Athenians defeated the Persian invasion force, halting Darius' expansion into Greece.

Xerxes I

He dealt with revolts in Egypt and Babylon, which he suppressed with force.

Xerxes' main building projects

He completed Persepolis and expanded Susa, continuing Darius' architectural legacy.

Xerxes' invasion of Greece

To avenge his father's defeat at Marathon and expand Persian influence.

Problems faced by Xerxes during invasion

Logistical issues, harsh terrain, and determined Greek resistance.

Battle of Thermopylae

Leonidas and the Spartans held the pass but were ultimately defeated.

Preparation for Salamis

Xerxes amassed a large fleet; the Greeks lured him into narrow straits for a tactical advantage.

Battle of Salamis

A decisive Greek naval victory that forced Xerxes to retreat.

Battle of Eurymedon

Around 469 BC, the Greeks, under Cimon, defeated Persian forces, ending Persian naval ambitions.

Alexander's early life

Tutored by Aristotle; trained in warfare and governance by Philip II.

Influence of Olympias on Alexander

She encouraged belief in his divine ancestry and had a powerful personal influence.

Alexander's relationship with Philip II

Admiring but tense; rivalry and suspicion culminated in Philip's assassination.

Alexander's beliefs and customs

He believed in a divine mission, adopted Persian customs, and saw himself as a world ruler.

Key companions of Alexander

Hephaestion (close friend), Parmenio, Cleitus (killed in argument), Callisthenes (critic), Antipater (regent).

Reason for Alexander's invasion of Persia

To avenge past invasions, seek glory and wealth, and fulfill Philip's plans.

Battle of Granicus (334 BC)

Alexander's first major victory in Asia Minor, securing the western provinces.

Battle of Gaugamela (331 BC)

A decisive victory over Darius III, marking the fall of the Persian Empire.

Battle of the Persian Gates

A difficult ambush in the Zagros Mountains, which Alexander eventually overcame.

Indus Valley campaign

Alexander defeated King Porus at Hydaspes, but his army mutinied at the Hyphasis River.

Difficulties during return from India

Harsh conditions in the Gedrosian Desert led to massive losses.

Alexander's views on Persians

He grew more accepting of Persian culture, causing tension with Macedonian troops.

Foundation cities of Alexander

Over 20 cities (many called Alexandria) to spread Hellenistic culture and secure rule.

Mass weddings at Susa

Alexander and his officers married Persian noblewomen to integrate cultures.

Event at Persepolis

The city was burned—possibly a symbolic act of revenge or drunken mistake.

Death of Cleitus

Alexander killed him during a drunken quarrel over his adoption of Persian customs.

Alexander's death

He died in Babylon in 323 BC from a sudden illness; theories include poisoning or fever.

Composition of Alexander's army

It included the Macedonian phalanx, Companion cavalry, archers, and siege engineers.

Use of siege warfare by Alexander

Effectively at Tyre and Aornus using engineering innovations to breach fortifications.

Alexander's relationship with his army

Deep mutual respect, though strained by his increasing easternisation and harsh demands.

Macedonian military tactics under Alexander

Use of phalanx, cavalry charges, specialist troops, and psychological warfare for decisive victories.