9. Development and Learning - Development Edition

AP Psychology

Developmental Psychology

the scientific study of how and why people change over the course of their life (cognitive, emotional, social, and physical domains)

Nature & Nurture

How do our genetic inheritance (nature) and our life experiences (nurture) interact to shape our development?

Continuity

refers to developmental changes that are slow and steady, where each step builds directly on the previous ones

Stages

propose that development happens in specific, sudden shifts that clearly differentiate one phase from another

Stability & Change

This area of study helps us understand how and why people remain the same in some ways but also evolve and adapt in others as they go through different life stages.

Longitudinal Research

studying the same individuals over time, allowing for direct observation of how behaviors, traits, and abilities change and develop throughout life

Cross-Sectional Research

studying different groups of people of various ages at the same point in time

Psychosocial Development

theory that individuals progress through a series of stages, each characterized by a specific conflict that contributes to a major aspect of personality

Prenatal Development

the process of growth and development within the womb, starting from conception and continuing until birth

Teratogens

harmful substances, such as drugs, alcohol, or infections, that can cause developmental abnormalities or birth defects when a fetus is exposed to them during prenatal development

Reflexes

automatic, instinctual responses that newborns are born with, aiding in their survival

Rooting Reflex

automatic response in newborns where they turn their head toward a touch on the cheek, helping them locate and latch onto the mother's breast for feeding

Maturation

the biological growth process that leads to orderly changes in behavior, guided by genetics and largely unaffected by experience

Developmental Milestones

key skills or behaviors that most children achieve by specific ages, such as walking, talking, and problem-solving, marking significant progress in physical, cognitive, and social development

Sensitive Period

a critical time in early development when the brain is especially receptive to learning specific skills, such as language or motor skills, making it easier to acquire them during this phase

Fine Motor Coordination

the ability to control small muscle movements, enabling tasks like writing, buttoning, and using utensils with precision

Gross Motor Coordination

the ability to control large muscle movements, enabling tasks like walking, jumping, and throwing with balance and strength

Visual Cliff

an experimental setup used to study depth perception in infants, featuring a clear glass surface that creates the illusion of a drop-off to test whether infants can perceive and avoid the "cliff."

Puberty

the period of physical and hormonal changes during adolescence that lead to sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce

Adolescent Growth Spurt

a rapid increase in height and weight that typically occurs during puberty, driven by hormonal changes and marking the transition from childhood to adulthood

Menopause

the natural biological process marking the end of a woman's menstrual cycles, typically occurring around age 50 and characterized by hormonal changes and the cessation of fertility

Sex

the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, and intersex

X Chromosome

Sex chromosome that both males and females have. Females typically have two X chromosomes (XX).

Y Chromosome

Sex chromosome found only in males. Males typically have one X and one Y chromosome (XY), which determines male biological sex.

Primary Sex Characteristics

The reproductive organs and structures directly involved in reproduction, such as the ovaries, testes, and external genitalia.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical traits that develop during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction, like breast development, facial hair, and voice deepening.

Menarche

A girl's first menstrual period, signaling the beginning of puberty and the ability to reproduce.

Spermarche

A boy's first production of sperm, marking the start of puberty and the ability to reproduce.

Gender

the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person’s biological sex

Sexual Orientation

A person’s sexual and emotional attraction to another person and the behavior and/or social affiliation that may result from this attraction.

Gender Identity

an individual's internal sense of being male, female, a blend of both, or neither, which may or may not align with their assigned sex at birth

Gender Roles

societal expectations and norms for behavior, attitudes, and activities typically associated with being male or female

Gender Typing

the process by which children learn and adopt behaviors, interests, and roles considered appropriate for their gender according to cultural norms

Ecological Systems Theory

a child's development is influenced by multiple layers of environmental systems. These include the immediate family (microsystem), larger community structures like schools (exosystem), and overarching cultural or societal norms (macrosystem). Each layer interacts to shape the child's growth.

Authoritarian Parenting Style

A strict parenting approach where parents enforce high expectations and rigid rules. They prioritize obedience and discipline, often relying on punishment with limited warmth or responsiveness to the child's needs.

Permissive Parenting Style

A relaxed approach to parenting where parents show warmth and responsiveness but have few rules and low expectations. They avoid enforcing strict boundaries, allowing children significant freedom and often indulging their desires.

Authoritative Parenting Style

A balanced approach to parenting, combining high expectations with warmth and support. Parents enforce clear rules and encourage independence while being responsive and open to their children's needs and opinions.

Temperament

The innate traits that influence how children respond to their environment, including their activity level, emotional reactivity, and adaptability. These early-emerging characteristics are thought to form the basis for later personality development.

Imprinting

A rapid and instinctive form of early learning where certain animals, particularly birds, form strong attachments to the first moving object they see shortly after birth or hatching.

Contact Comfort

The sense of security and emotional relief derived from physical touch, particularly between infants and caregivers.

Separation Anxiety

A distress response experienced by infants or young children when separated from their primary caregiver.

Attachment Styles

Patterns of behavior that describe how children form emotional bonds with caregivers, influencing relationships later in life.

Secure Attachment

A pattern where children feel confident and trust that their caregiver will meet their needs.

Avoidant Attachment

A pattern where children exhibit independence and avoid seeking comfort from their caregiver, often resulting from caregivers who are emotionally unavailable or unresponsive.

Anxious Attachment

A pattern where children are overly clingy and anxious about separation from their caregiver, stemming from inconsistent caregiving.

Disorganized Attachment

A pattern characterized by inconsistent or confused behaviors towards a caregiver, often resulting from trauma or abuse.

Social Clock

cultural timeline that sets expected ages for key life events, like starting a career, getting married, or having children, shaping social expectations for individuals

Emerging Adulthood

transitional life stage from late teens to mid-20s, marked by exploration and self-discovery as individuals navigate career paths, relationships, and personal identity

Adolescent Egocentrism

stage in teenage development marked by an increased self-focus, leading to beliefs that one's experiences are unique and that others are always observing them

Imaginary Audience

phenomenon in adolescence where individuals believe others are constantly watching and judging their behavior, making them highly self-conscious

Personal Fable

adolescent belief that one's experiences are unique and special, often leading to feelings of invulnerability and an underestimation of potential risks

Possible Selves

the various versions of who individuals might become in the future, including ideal selves they hope to achieve and feared selves they wish to avoid

Social Identity

an individual's sense of who they are based on their membership in social groups, like nationality, religion, or profession

Identity Diffusion

a state where individuals have not yet explored or committed to life choices regarding beliefs, goals, or values, often leading to uncertainty about their sense of self

Identity Foreclosure

stage where individuals commit to goals, beliefs, or values without exploring alternatives, often adopting the expectations of parents or society

Identity Moratorium

a stage in which individuals actively explore different life paths, beliefs, and values but have not yet made a final commitment, often leading to a period of uncertainty and experimentation

Identity Achievement

the stage where individuals have explored various life paths and made firm decisions about their beliefs, values, and goals, resulting in a clear and stable sense of self

Jean Piaget

He studied children’s developing cognition-all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Schemas

cognitive frameworks that help individuals organize and interpret information by categorizing experiences based on prior knowledge and expectations

Assimilation

the process of incorporating new information into existing schemas, fitting new experiences into familiar categories to understand them better

Accommodation

the process of altering existing schemas or creating new ones to adapt to new information that doesn't fit existing categories

Sensorimotor Stage

the first of Piaget's stages of cognitive development (birth to age 2) when infants learn about the world through sensory experiences and motor actions

Object Permanence

the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched, developing during Piaget's sensorimotor stage

Preoperational Stage

stage of cognitive development (ages 2 to 7), where children develop language, symbolic thinking, and imagination but struggle with logical reasoning and understanding others' perspectives

Pretend Play

involves children acting out scenarios, roles, or situations using their imagination, developing creativity, social skills, and symbolic thinking

Parallel Play

stage in early childhood where children play alongside each other without directly interacting, each focused on their own activity but observing and imitating others

Animism

a belief in early childhood, common during Piaget's preoperational stage, where children attribute lifelike qualities, like feelings and intentions, to inanimate objects

Egocentrism

a characteristic of the preoperational stage where children struggle to see things from another person's point of view, believing others share their perspective

Theory of Mind

the ability to understand that others have thoughts, feelings, and perspectives different from one's own, typically developing around age 4 to 5

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget's third stage of cognitive development (ages 7 to 11), where children develop logical thinking about concrete objects and understand concepts like conservation and reversibility.

Conservation

the understanding that certain properties of objects, such as volume or mass, remain consistent despite changes in form or appearance, typically developing in Piaget's concrete operational stage

Reversibility

the ability to mentally reverse an action or operation, understanding that objects can be returned to their original state, typically developing in Piaget's concrete operational stage

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget's final stage of cognitive development (beginning at age 12), where individuals develop the ability to think abstractly, solve hypothetical problems, and use deductive reasoning.

Lev Vygotsky

developmental psychologist known for his theory that social interaction plays a critical role in cognitive development, emphasizing the importance of culture, language, and the "zone of proximal development" in learning

Scaffolding

teaching method where a knowledgeable person provides tailored support to help a learner achieve new skills, gradually reducing assistance as the learner becomes more proficient

Zone of Proximal Development

the range between what a learner can do independently and what they can achieve with guidance, emphasizing the importance of social interaction in learning

Crystallized Intelligence

refers to the knowledge and skills accumulated over time through education and experience, improving with age and useful for problem-solving based on facts and prior learning

Fluid Intelligence

the capacity to reason, solve novel problems, and think abstractly without relying on prior knowledge, generally peaking in early adulthood and gradually declining with age

Dementia

decline in cognitive functioning that interferes with daily life, characterized by memory loss, impaired judgment, and difficulties in communication and reasoning, often seen in older adults

Language

a system of communication using symbols, sounds, and grammar to convey thoughts, feelings, and meaning

Critical Period

a specific time frame in early childhood when the brain is most receptive to learning language, making it easier to acquire fluency

Phonemes

the smallest distinct units of sound in a language that can change the meaning of a word

Morphemes

the smallest units of meaning in a language, such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words

Semantics

the study of meaning in language, focusing on how words, phrases, and sentences convey meaning

Grammar

the set of rules that govern how words are combined to form sentences, enabling clear and meaningful communication in a language

Syntax

the set of rules that determines the arrangement of words and phrases to form sentences in a language, affecting sentence structure and meaning

Cooing

early stage of language development where infants produce repetitive, soft vowel sounds like "oo" and "ah," usually starting around two months of age

Babbling Stage

phase in language development, usually starting around 4-6 months, where infants produce repetitive consonant-vowel combinations like "ba-ba" and "da-da."

One-Word Stage

phase in language development, typically around age one, where children use single words to represent whole sentences or ideas

Two-Word Stage

phase in language development, around age two, where children start combining two words to form simple sentences, like "want cookie" or "go car."

Telegraphic speech

involves using short, concise phrases that omit less essential words

Overgeneralization

common error in language development where children apply grammatical rules too broadly, resulting in mistakes like "goed" instead of "went" or "tooths" instead of "teeth."

Nonverbal Manual Gestures

manual gestures are hand or arm movements used to communicate without speaking, such as pointing, waving, or making signs, and often convey emotions, intentions, or directions