PSYCH- LANGUAGE

What are the three main characteristics of language?

Language is regular (rule-governed), arbitrary (words have no inherent connection to meaning), and productive (infinite combinations of words can create new ideas).

Define 'regular' in the context of language.

Regular means language follows grammatical rules that dictate how words combine to create meaningful sentences.

Define 'arbitrary' in language.

Arbitrary means there is no inherent relationship between a word’s sound and its meaning; words are symbolic and culturally assigned.

Define 'productive' in language.

Productive means words can be combined in infinite new ways to form unique sentences and ideas.

What does the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis state?

That language influences how we think and perceive the world; our interactions are shaped by linguistic categories.

Evidence supporting the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.

The Pirahã tribe has only words for “one,” “two,” and “many,” which limits their ability to represent larger quantities.

Evidence contradicting the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.

French uses one term “belle-mère” for both “stepmother” and “mother-in-law,” yet speakers still understand the distinction.

What is a morpheme?

The smallest unit of language that carries meaning; may be a full word or part of a word (e.g., “un-”, “dog”, “-s”).

What is a phoneme?

The smallest unit of sound that distinguishes meaning in a language (e.g., /b/, /p/).

Difference between morpheme and phoneme.

Morphemes carry meaning; phonemes carry sound distinctions that form morphemes.

What is syntax?

The set of grammatical rules that govern how words are organized into sentences.

What is semantics?

The meaning conveyed by words, phrases, or sentences.

Example of syntactically correct but semantically meaningless sentence.

“The colourless green ideas sleep furiously.”

What is universal phonemic sensitivity?

The ability of infants to detect and discriminate between all phonemes across languages before specializing in their native language.

When does perceptual narrowing occur?

During the first year of life; infants lose the ability to distinguish non-native phonemes.

What is the conditioned head-turn procedure used for?

Testing infant phoneme discrimination by conditioning them to turn toward new sounds.

Who are Broca and Wernicke, and what do their brain areas do?

Broca’s area (frontal lobe) controls speech production; Wernicke’s area (temporal lobe) controls comprehension.

What is Foreign Accent Syndrome (FAS)?

A rare condition where brain damage causes changes in speech prosody, making it sound like the speaker has a foreign accent.

Define ‘pragmatics.’

The social rules and skills for effective communication, like turn-taking and tone in conversation.

What is the still-face procedure and what does it show?

An experiment where an unresponsive adult face causes infant distress, showing early expectations of social interaction.

What is cooing and when does it occur?

Early vocalization combining vowel sounds (e.g., “oo,” “ah”) at about 8–12 weeks of age.

What is babbling?

Repetitive consonant-vowel sounds (e.g., “bababa”), a precursor to speech around 6–12 months.

Define ‘holophrastic phase.’

A stage where one word conveys an entire thought (e.g., “ball!” meaning “give me the ball”).

What is the naming explosion or word spurt?

A rapid vocabulary growth phase around 18–24 months where children learn many new words quickly.

Define ‘fast mapping.’

The ability to learn a new word after hearing it once or twice.

Difference between receptive and expressive vocabulary.

Receptive vocabulary: words a child understands; expressive vocabulary: words a child can produce.

What is overextension?

Using a specific word too broadly (e.g., calling all animals “dog”).

What is underextension?

Using a word too narrowly (e.g., calling only the family’s own cat “cat”).

Define ‘perceptual narrowing.’

The loss of sensitivity to non-native phonemes as infants specialize in their native language.

What is infant-directed speech (motherese)?

Speech directed toward infants characterized by high pitch, exaggerated tone, and rhythm; helps with language learning.

Describe the segmentation problem.

The difficulty of distinguishing individual words in continuous speech, especially in an unfamiliar language.

What predicts later language proficiency in infants?

Early speech segmentation ability predicts vocabulary size and later language skill.

What is the difference between thought and language according to psychologists?

Though related, language and thought are distinct; some thoughts occur without language.

What is grammar?

The system of rules that govern word structure and sentence formation within a language.

What is overregularization in child speech?

Incorrectly applying language rules to irregular forms (e.g., “runned” instead of “ran”).

What are arbitrary associations in language?

Connections between words and meanings that are symbolic, not based on resemblance.

How do languages differ in phoneme rules?

Each language has unique constraints on which phoneme combinations are allowed.

What is a transparent orthography?

A writing system where letters consistently match sounds (e.g., Italian), making reading easier than opaque systems like English.

How do English and French differ in grammatical gender?

English assigns gender only to biological sex; French assigns gender to all nouns.

What is perceptual narrowing’s significance for language development?

It shows experience shapes phonemic perception, tuning infants’ brains to their native language.

At what age does the language explosion typically occur?

Between 1.5 and 6 years of age.

At what age do children typically begin using plurals and past tense?

Between 2 and 3 years old.

What is the main difference between human and animal communication?

Human language is symbolic, productive, and rule-governed, while animal communication is not.

Describe the waggle dance.

A bee’s movement pattern that communicates direction and distance of food sources.

Which area of the brain is responsible for understanding language?

Wernicke’s area.

Which area of the brain is responsible for producing speech?

Broca’s area.

What is the relationship between phonemes and morphemes?

Morphemes are built from phonemes; phonemes combine to form meaningful morphemes.

Why are spaces in written text important?

They visually segment words, aiding comprehension—similar to how listeners segment speech in spoken language.

How can speech segmentation be used clinically?

It may help identify infants at risk for later language development problems.

What is the biological basis of phoneme discrimination?

Humans are born with the neural capacity for all phoneme distinctions, later refined by experience.

What are onomatopoeic words?

Words whose sounds imitate their meaning (e.g., “meow,” “splash”).

What is the difference between language and communication?

Communication conveys information; language is a structured, symbolic, and rule-based system unique to humans.

What is the ‘rule-governed’ property of language?

Despite infinite possible combinations, language is constrained by syntax and grammar rules.

Define semantics in one sentence.

The meaning or interpretation of words and sentences in a language.

Example of an arbitrary association in language.

The English word “cat” and the Korean “goyangee” represent the same concept with unrelated sounds.

What do overextensions and underextensions have in common?

Both are errors children make while learning to categorize and use words appropriately.

What is perceptual narrowing evidence for?

Experience-dependent tuning of perceptual systems during infancy.

What is fast mapping evidence of?

The brain’s efficiency in associating meaning with new words from minimal exposure.

Why do adults find learning new phonemes harder than infants?

Adults have lost universal phonemic sensitivity due to perceptual narrowing.

What does infant-directed speech help infants learn?

Vowel categories and sound distinctions in their native language.

Why do bilingual children sometimes develop language slightly slower?

They divide exposure between two languages but often catch up and gain cognitive flexibility.

What are the main brain areas for language?

Broca’s area (speech production) and Wernicke’s area (comprehension).

What does the study of pragmatics involve?

Understanding how context and social norms affect communication and meaning.

What is the difference between symbolic and non-symbolic communication?

Symbolic uses agreed-upon signs (language), non-symbolic relies on instinctive signals (e.g., dog growl).

Why is language considered uniquely human?

Only humans exhibit arbitrary, productive, and rule-governed communication.

What is perceptual narrowing’s developmental timeline?

It begins around 6–8 months and is largely complete by 12 months.

Define 'expressive vocabulary.'

Words a child can produce when speaking.

Define 'receptive vocabulary.'

Words a child can understand but not necessarily say.

What is a holophrase?

A single word that expresses a complex idea or full sentence in early speech.

What does the “colourless green ideas sleep furiously” example show?

A sentence can be grammatically correct but semantically meaningless.

What is the purpose of grammar in language?

It organizes morphemes and words into meaningful structures.

What is infant babbling’s significance?

It practices sound production and rhythm before actual words develop.

What is motherese also known as?

Infant-directed speech.

What is a morphemic analysis?

Breaking words into smallest meaning units to study language structure and origin.

What are pragmatics in communication?

The rules governing language use in social contexts.

Why do languages differ so much?

Because word-sound associations are arbitrary and shaped by culture.

What is overregularization an indicator of?

That a child is learning and applying grammatical rules but has not yet learned exceptions.

How does the brain organize speech rhythm and timing?

Through prosody, the rhythm and melody of language.

What is prosody’s role in FAS?

Altered speech rhythm and stress patterns create the illusion of a foreign accent.

What are the three main units of language structure?

Phonemes, morphemes, and syntax.

Define 'syntax'.

The set of rules determining the order and combination of words in sentences.

Define 'semantics'.

The study of meaning in language and words.

What is the segmentation problem in speech?

The challenge of identifying where one word ends and another begins in fluent speech.

Why can English be hard to read for beginners?

It has an opaque orthography where letters don’t always match sounds.

When do infants lose the ability to discriminate foreign phonemes?

Between 8 and 12 months of age.

What does the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis question?

Whether language shapes thought or merely reflects it.

What makes human language different from animal communication?

It is abstract, symbolic, productive, and rule-governed.