Chapter 14: Motivation and Emotion

Motivation

Motivation

is defined as a need or desire that serves to energize or direct behavior.

Evolutionary theory

states that animals are motivated to act by basic needs critical to the survival of the organism.

primary drives

Hunger, thirst, sleep, and reproduction needs are

secondary drive

The desire to obtain learned reinforcers, such as money or social acceptance, is a

Olds and Milner

discovered that rats would press a bar in order to send a small electrical pulse into certain areas of their brains.

Instinct theory

supported by evolutionary psychology, posits that the learning of species-specific behavior motivates organisms to do what is necessary to ensure their survival.

Arousal theory

states that the main reason people are motivated to perform any action is to maintain an ideal level of physiological arousal.

Yerkes-Dodson law

states that tasks of moderate difficulty, neither too easy nor too hard, elicit the highest level of performance.

opponent process theory

is a theory of motivation that is clearly relevant to the concept of addiction.

drive-reduction theory

posits that psychological needs put stress on the body and that we are motivated to reduce this negative experience.

Homeostasis

is a state of regulatory equilibrium.

set point

target temperature is called

ventromedial hypothalamus

will send messages to the brain to eat less and to exercise more.

lateral hypothalamus

When body weight falls below the set point, the brain sends messages to eat more and exercise less through the

hypothalamus

has been identified as an area controlling feeding.

Leptin

plays a role in the feedback loop between signals from the hypothalamus and those from the stomach.

Glucose

is the primary fuel of the brain and most other organs.

lipostatic hypothesis

A second candidate hypothesis is called the

Anorexia nervosa

which is more prevalent in females, is an eating disorder characterized by an individual being 15 percent below ideal body weight.

Body dysmorphia

or a distorted body image, is key to understanding this disorder.

bulimia nervosa

which is characterized by alternating periods of binging and purging.

Androgens and estrogens

are the primary sexual hormones in males and females, respectively.

Biological Theory

As discussed in the “biological bases” of motivation, early theories on motivation relied on a purely biological explanation of motivated behavior.

Abraham Maslow

proposed a hierarchical system for organizing needs.

Self-actualization

occurs when people creatively and meaningfully fulfill their own potential.

Extrinsic motivators

are often associated with the pressures of society, such as getting an education, having a job, and being sociable.

Intrinsic motivators

are associated with creativity and enjoyment.

overjustification effect

Over time, our intrinsic motivation may decrease if we receive extrinsic rewards for the same behavior.

self-determination

important intrinsic motivator

self-efficacy

the belief that we can or cannot attain a particular goal.

achievement motivation

the need to reach realistic goals that wintrinsic motivatore set for ourselves.

Henry Murray

believed that, although motivation is rooted in biology, individual differences and varying environments can cause motivations and needs to be expressed in many different ways.

approach-approach

conflict, one has to decide between two desirable options, such as having to choose between two colleges of similar characteristics.

Avoidance-avoidance

is a similar dilemma.

approach-avoidance

one choice is presented, but it carries both pluses and minuses.

Emotions

are experiential and subjective responses to certain internal and external stimuli.

James-Lange theory

posits that environmental stimuli cause physiological changes and responses.

Cannon-Bard theory

arose as a response to the James-Lange theory.

two-factor theory

proposed by Schachter and Singer, adds a cognitive twist to the James-Lange theory.

Paul Ekman

observed facial expressions from a variety of cultures and pointed out that, regardless of where two persons were from, their expressions of certain emotions were almost identical.

facial feedback hypothesis

the idea that a person’s facial expression can influence the actual emotion being experienced.

limbic system

is a collection of brain structures that lie on both sides of the thalamus; together, these structures appear to be primarily responsible for emotional experiences.

amygdala

plays an especially key role in the identification and expression of fear and aggression.

flashback

Similar circumstances to a traumatic event can lead to recall of the memory of the experience

prefrontal cortex

is critical for emotional experience, and it is also important in temperament and decision-making.

autonomic nervous system

is responsible for controlling the activities of most of the organs and glands, and it controls arousal.

sympathetic nervous system

provides the body with brief, intense, vigorous responses.

parasympathetic nervous system

provides signals to the internal organs during a calm resting state when no crisis is present.

Stress

causes a person to feel challenged or endangered.

transient

meaning that they are temporary challenges.

Alarm

refers to the arousal of the sympathetic nervous system, resulting in the release of various stimulatory hormones

corticosterone

which is used as a physiological index of stress.

Resistance

is the result of parasympathetic rebound.

Richard Lazarus

developed a cognitive theory of how we respond to stress.

Type-A pattern

behavior is typified by competitiveness, a sense of time urgency, and elevated feelings of anger and hostility.

Type-B pattern

behavior is characterized by a low level of competitiveness, low preoccupation with time issues, and a generally easygoing attitude.