chapter 2: anatomy and physiology

cells require

*water to facilitate metabolic processes, food to provide necessary nutrients and energy, oxygen to enable energy release from nutrients, heat as a byproduct of metabolism that influences the rate of chemical reactions, and pressure* which plays a vital role in processes like breathing

anatomy

structure, answers what body is made of

physiology

focuses on functions of body part, explaining how they work individually and together

cells

The smallest units of life capable of performing all basic functions.

tissues

Groups of similar cells working together to perform specific functions.

organs

Structures composed of multiple tissue types that work collectively to perform a particular task.

systems

Groups of organs that coordinate to carry out complex functions necessary for survival, such as circulation or digestion

cytoplasm

The internal fluid where biochemical reactions occur.

cell wall

Provides protection and structural support (not present in all cell types).

cell membrane

Acts as a selective barrier, regulating what enters and exits the cell.

nucleus

he control center containing *DNA and chromosomes, directing cell activities and reproduction. often referred to as the cell's "brain"*, orchestrating growth, reproduction, and response to stimuli.

cells perform

all necessary life processes, including energy production, waste elimination, and communication with other cells.

skeletal system

rovides the *framework* for the body, supporting and protecting internal organs; protection, blood cell production, mineral storage; diseases include osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, bone cancer

flat bones

ribs, skull, protective shells

long bones

humerus, femur, facilitate movement

short bones

metacarpals, act as bridges

irregular bones

pelvis, do not fit into other categories

muscle tissue

enables movement and stability

skeletal muscle

Voluntary, striated muscles attached to bones, responsible for conscious movements such as walking or lifting.

smooth muscle

Involuntary muscles found in organs like the digestive tract and blood vessels, controlling processes like digestion and blood flow.

cardiac muscle

Specialized muscle tissue of the heart, responsible for continuous, rhythmic contractions necessary for pumping blood.

homeostasis

body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes, involves regulation of body temp, pH balance, fluid and electrolyte levels, blood glucose levels

circulatory system

transports* vital substances such as oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products throughout the body; transportation, nutrition, excretion, regulation, protection, diseases include CAD, sugical tools like sternal saws and bypass sets

integumentary system

includes skin, hair, glands, and nails; protects, environmental interaction, temperature regulation, sensory perception; diseases include skin cancers, dermatitis

epidermis

Outer protective layer, constantly shed and replaced.

dermis

Supports the epidermis, rich in blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, and glands.

hypodermis

Deepest layer, composed of fat and connective tissue, providing insulation and cushioning.

respiratory system

facilitates gas exchange, inhalation, transport, exhalation, filters, warms, and humidifies incoming air, maintaining blood pH and supporting cellular respiration, diseases include asthma, COPD

lungs

has five lobes, 3 in right lung and 2 in left

digestive system

compromises GI tract and accessory organs, digestion, absorption of nutrients, and waste elimination, organs include organ cavity, pharynx and esophagus, small intestine (site for nutrient absorption), large intestine (absorbs water and electrolytes, forms and exples feces)

accessory organs of digestive system

liver produces bile, pancreas secretes digestive enzymes and regulates blood sugar

nervous system

detects stimuli, evaluates information, and initiates responses, Protection:* Bones, meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid safeguard delicate neural tissue. Nerves are bundles of fibers classified as motor (control muscles) or sensory* (detect stimuli). diseases include herniated discs, tumors, craniotomy and laminectomy sets

central nervous system

brain and spinal cord, protected by bones (skull and vertebrae), membranes (meninges), and cerbrospinal fluid

peripheral nervous system

nerves connecting CNS to limbs and organs

urinary system

maintains water and chemical balance by eliminating wastes, regulating water and electrolytes, maintaining pH, controlling blood pressure, supporting red blood cell production; diseases include kidney stones, infections, tools include cystoscopes and uretroscopes

endocrine system

secretes hormones directly into bloodstream via ductless glands, diseases include diabetes and thyroid disorder, tools include thyroidectomy sets, insulin pumps

pituitary gland

master gland, regulating other endocrine organs

pineal gland

produces melatonin

thyroid gland

controls metabolic rate

parathyroid gland

regulate calcium and phosphorous metabolism

adrenal gland

secrete steroids and adrenaline

pancreas

regulates blood sugar through insulin and glucagon

reproductive system

enables sex cell production, hormone secretion, and support fertilization, Mammary glands produce milk post-birth. This system functions during a specific lifespan and is vital for human reproduction.

male organs

Testes produce sperm and testosterone; accessory glands (seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral glands) support sperm mobility and nourishment.

female organs

Ovaries produce eggs and hormones; fallopian tubes transport eggs; the uterus provides an environment for fertilization and fetal development; the vagina serves as the birth canal.