State and Local Government Lecture Review

Easton’s definition of politics

The authoritative allocation of values in a society

Deutsch definition of politics

The maximum degree of change in the opposing group with the minimal degree of change to one’s own group

Professor’s definition of politics

Individuals and groups with varying amounts of power seek control to make decisions for a larger group

What 3 things are always components of politics?

power, decisions, and conflict

Contrast beliefs and facts in politics

Beliefs are what we consider to be true, including interpretations and opinions. They are often difficult to change regardless of the facts. Facts are based on empirical evidence

What are 3 ways information can be less than factual?

incorrect, incomplete, or out-of-context information

What are the main goals of political actors?

To seek power and influence, to entice others to agree with them

What are the main goals of a political scientist?

seek and transparently explain empirical data, fund and publish more research

What are the two types of bias? Define each.

Implicit bias, which is subconsciously assigning negative characteristics to someone or something based on the group we assign them to, and confirmation bias, which is seeking out proof of an already held belief and ignoring all facts that contradict that belief.

What are the two types of heuristics? Define each.

Availability heuristics, which gives precedence to the most recent or frequently accessed information, and Representative heuristics, which is assuming a person displaying a particular characteristic will also have other traits because they frequently occur together.

Compare and contrast implicit and confirmation bias.

Both influence how people make decisions, causing people to interpret information inaccurately, and are hard to recognize because they happen subconsciously. Confirmation bias impacts how people view and reinforce their beliefs, while implicit bias shapes how people perceive and respond to other people or groups.

Compare and contrast availability and representative heuristics.

Both are mental shortcuts that use assumptions to make quick decisions. Availability heuristic uses the most easily recalled information while representative heuristic uses how closely something matches a mental image or stereotype.

What year did the Hispanic population outnumber NH whites in Texas? In what years are they projected to outnumber NH whites in the USA?

2022, 2050-60

Why does politics always favor immediate benefits over long term investments?

To secure their position in office. Voters respond to immediate rewards over investments. Consider the teacher example: a politician will get more votes from older taxpayers who are pleased with a lowered tax rate than from future parents who aren’t yet considering the quality of children’s teachers and won’t for many years.

Why is fake news a bigger problem today than before the advent of social media?

Fake news can be spread rapidly with no verification and video editing facilitates faked clips

What are important questions to ask to see if a news site is trustworthy? (4)

Do they have corrections? Is the story complete with context? Are all sides consulted? Is it based on verifiable information?

What are two methods used in some false news accounts that are based on actual events?

Taking verifiable news out of context or reposting an old story as if it is relevant to current events

Identify the characteristics used to assess the usefulness of a measure.

Terms should be clearly defined, measurements should be as complete and accurate as possible, and time should be considered

List the 5 elements of the scientific method.

empirical data, transparent process, rules-based investigation, independently confirmable, and falsifiable

Describe the challenges of using demographic data.

It is expensive to collect, so it is usually collected by the government. Limited data categories are collected, and updates are spread out over time.

What are the questions to ask when conducting comparative analysis?

What question are we trying to answer? What measure should we use? How much variation exists in the data? Are there patterns in the variation? Can we theorize the reason for those patterns and form insights?

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of state-level comparative analysis.

State-level is useful because there is enough commonality for context but enough difference to make useful comparisons. Comparison captures the varying outcomes of policies, rather than an all-or-nothing dichotomy. However, confidence in any conclusions made is limited, as there are likely many confounding factors.

Define each of the 3 types of measures and when and why they are used.

Count - Directly counting things, when all you need in a solid number.

Rate - One count measure divided by another, when you need to compare things while accounting for the different group sizes.

Composite - Built or composed from other measures, when you can’t directly observe what you want to measure.

Describe what heat maps do and the advantages of disadvantages of using them.

Heat maps depict variations in a single measurement. They make interpreting the single variable easier and spatial patterns readily recognizable. However, “binning” results in a loss of detail, and changing the size and number of bins can skew interpretations.

How would you calculate the unemployment rate in a state if you knew all these numbers about the state:  the population, the number of employed people, the number of unemployed people, and how many of those unemployed are still looking for work?

The numerator of your rate is the number of unemployed people looking for work. The denominator is the labor force, which is the number of employed people plus the number of unemployed people looking for work.

Explain the strengths and weaknesses of scatterplots.

They plot the two variables, making it easier to see relationships between those variables. However, they do not imply causation, only correlation.

How is the “r” coefficient of scatterplots understood?

High r values mean tighter grouping with few outliers and a strong relationship between variables. If the r is between -0.3-+0.3, there is no correlation.

Explain how an axis that does not start at zero can affect interpretation of a data plot.

It makes small changes appear larger, impacting interpretation across the data set

Explain how a break in an axis can affect the interpretation of a data plot.

They make outliers appear less extreme

Define and explain the difference between current-year/nominal dollars and fixed-year/real dollars.

Nominal dollars are the actual currency used at the time it was paid to buy things. Real dollars are theoretical and involve inflation calculations for every year compared to a baseline “peg” year to reflect actual purchasing power.

Explain the difference between correlation and causality.

Correlation is a purely mathematical measure of empirical relationship. Causality is the theoretical reason for that relationship. Causality requires correlation, but correlation does not indicate causality.

It is 2017. You go to a restaurant with your family that has old-time signs hanging on the walls. You see an old Coca-Cola poster there listing the price of a bottle: 5 cents. Is that price stated in real or current dollars? Why?

Current dollars, because it was the price at the time and does not factor in inflation or the current purchasing power of 5 cents

What are the 3 elements required for causality?

Correlation sufficient for an empirical relationship, directionality, and time sequencing

Define spuriousness.

When a relationship is correlated but not causal

How can a near-perfect correlation (high r) result in wrong conclusions?

When there is a high r, there’s often a third causal measure both variables are related to, rather than the variables being directly related to each other.

Define political culture.

A shared framework of beliefs, values, and habits in regard to politics

Explain the roots of Texas political culture.

Distinct due to its large size and history of geographic isolation. A mix of “Old South” conservative attitudes derived from slavery, defeat in the civil war, and segregation, and “wild west” individualism derived from rugged frontier life.

What were Elazar’s 3 types of political culture and from what causal factor did he believe they originated?

Individualistic, Moralistic, and Traditionalistic. From distinct immigrant cultures settling in different areas of the US.

What are 2 main reasons Elazar’s theories were controversial?

He only identified one causal factor when there is always multiple and he used state boundaries when political culture isn’t defined by state lines

What is the central thread of an Individualistic political culture?

The government should by limited and secondary to the marketplace and individual initiatives. Politicians are qualified by wealth and run to gain power. Politics is partisan and corruption is expected.

What is the central thread of an Moralistic political culture?

The government exists to advance the wellbeing of citizens. Politicians run to provide a service and citizens have a civic duty to vote. Politics is issue-based and corruption is not tolerated.

What is the central thread of an Traditionalistic political culture?

The government exists to serve the elite and maintain the existing social hierarchy. Politicians run out of family obligation and citizens aren’t expected to vote. Politics is a competition between rival factions of the elite.

What is Texas’ position in Elazar’s theory of political culture?

Traditionalistic-Individualistic

In what ways is Texas political culture traditionalistic?

Long history of one-party rule, lower voter turnout, and social and economic conservatism

In what ways is Texas political culture individualistic?

Strong support for private business, opposition to big government, and faith in individual initiatives over government programs

Define and compare public and private goods.

Public goods are freely available to everyone while private goods are only available to those who purchased them.

What are hybrid public-private goods? What is their utility?

They are provided but include a fee. They provide a useful public benefit while not being paid for entirely by the government.

What are the 3 prerequisites to a “pure” public good?

Users can get benefits for free, they prioritize the good of the group over the individual, and consumption by one doesn’t reduce the benefit available to others.

Why can’t private entities offer public goods?

Because public goods must be free, and businesses wouldn’t make a profit

Explain the 3 purposes of government.

1.Maintain order through establishing laws 2.Provide public goods businesses are unable or unwilling to provide 3.Promote equality by helping the poor

Why is the “promote equality” purpose of government controversial?

It is the most recently added. Liberals and conservatives don’t agree to what extent the government should do this, or if they should at all.

Define the ends of each of the 3 continuums of Public Power, Public Economy, and Public Society.

Public power extends from anarchy to totalitarianism. Public economy extends from socialism to capitalism. Public society extends from freedom to order.

Define conservatives

Social order & capitalism; government should regulate social choices but not economic choices

Define liberals

Social freedom & equality; government should not restrict social choices but should regulate the economy to promote individual welfare

Describe the “Texas Brand” of conservatism, and the possible roles of Social Darwinism and laissez-faire in it.

Texas conservatism stresses individualism and minimal government interference. Social Darwinism is the belief that those who have failed economically are less fit and not deserving of government intervention. Laissez-faire is apparent in the trickle-down economic theory, wherein businesses gaining wealth is theorized to flow down and lift up everyone.