L2. Theoretical Perspectives

Theory

A set of interrelated propositions that organizes and explains observed phenomena, postulates causal relations, and enables explanation and prediction.

Sociological Social Psychology Perspectives

The three main approaches to studying social psychology from a sociological viewpoint: Symbolic Interaction, Structure and Personality, and Group Processes.

Symbolic Interaction (Perspective)

A sociological perspective that emphasizes individual social interaction and qualitative analysis, focusing on identity and social identity theory.

Structure and Personality (Perspective)

A sociological perspective that focuses on the stable elements of society using quantitative methods, based on components, proximity, and psychological principles.

Group Processes (Perspective)

A sociological perspective that highlights small group interactions as crucial to maintaining social processes and social behavior.

Components Principle

Identifies the elements of society most likely to impact individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

Proximity Principle

States that people are most impacted by society through their immediate social surroundings.

Psychological Principle

Emphasizes the ways that individuals process their proximal social experiences.

Primary Groups

Groups like family and close friends who interact based on emotional attachments.

Secondary Groups

Groups we affiliate with to achieve specific goals.

Reference Groups

Groups that may not involve physical interaction but are still used by people in making decisions (e.g., online organizations).

Role Theory

A theory stating that people conform to norms defined by others' expectations, explaining regular patterns in social behavior.

Social Roles

Sets of social behaviors assigned to people based upon their social status.

Reinforcement Theory

A theory proposing that social behavior is governed by external events, specifically by reinforcements and punishments that follow a behavior.

Positive Reinforcement

When a behavior is followed by the occurrence of something pleasurable, increasing the likelihood of that behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

When a behavior is followed by the removal of something aversive, increasing the likelihood of that behavior.

Positive Punishment

When a behavior is followed by the occurrence of something aversive, decreasing the likelihood of that behavior.

Negative Punishment

When a behavior is followed by the removal of something pleasant, decreasing the likelihood of that behavior.

Stimulus (Reinforcement Theory)

Any event that leads to an alteration or change in behavior.

Response (Reinforcement Theory)

The (change in) behavior induced by a stimulus.

Reinforcement

Any favorable outcome that results from a response and strengthens it.

Stimulus Discrimination

A process which occurs when a person learns the exact conditions under which a response will be reinforced.

Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

The theory that a person can acquire new responses simply by observing the behavior of another person (a model).

Imitation (Social Learning)

An observational learning process where the learner neither performs a response nor receives any reinforcement during observation.

Social Exchange Theory

A theory stating that individuals choose actions to maximize rewards and minimize costs, viewing relationships as exchanges of goods and services.

Equity (Social Exchange)

A state in a relationship where participants feel the rewards they receive are proportional to the costs they bear.

Cognitive Theory

A theory proposing that an individual's mental activities (cognitive processes) are important determinants of social behavior, organized into schemas.

Schemas

Any form of organization among cognitions (concepts and beliefs) used to interpret the environment, the self, and others.

Cognitive Consistency

The principle that individuals strive to hold ideas that are consistent with one another.

Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger)

The tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions.

Selective Exposure

The tendency to seek information that agrees with one’s views and to avoid dissonant information.

Symbolic Interactionism (Theory)

A theory focused on day-to-day interactions, emphasizing that people create social reality through symbolic communication and interpretive processes.

Three Principles of Symbolic Interaction (Blumer)

1) People create social reality through interaction, 2) People use names/labels to make decisions, 3) Interactions are interpreted based on participants' backgrounds.

Looking-Glass Self (Cooley)

The concept that one's sense of self depends on seeing oneself as reflected in interactions with others.

"I" and "Me" (Mead)

The "I" is the individual's response to others' attitudes; the "Me" is the organized set of others' attitudes an individual assumes.

Generalized Other (Mead)

The conception of the attitudes and expectations held in common by the members of the organized groups with whom one interacts.

Self-Schema

The organized structure of cognitions or thoughts we have about ourselves, including our social identities and personal qualities.

Reflexivity (Symbolic Interactionism)

The concept that the self is both the source ("I") and the object ("me") of its own reflexive behavior.

Significant Others

The persons about whose opinions people care most.

Evolutionary Theory

A theory positing that social behavior is a product of long-term evolutionary adaptation to aid survival and reproduction.

Evolutionary Psychology

Extends evolutionary ideas to explain social behavior like altruism, aggression, and mate selection, locating behavioral roots in genetics.