BIP6 Empire

Historiography - view of Empire

- Something that existed separately and outside of Britain

- Now we see that the Britain influenced the territories it exerted powers over and how the empire influenced Britain

Historiographic timeline of empire

1970s - Hs would have studied political records, giving them a skewed narrative from the center

1980s and 90s - new imperial history, JM, propaganda everywhere. Greater focus on the colonised and how they impacted Britain.

Issues with the question of Empire

Which Empire - Informal, Formal, White colonies?

Which Imperialism - through colonisation and use of military force or also through commerce and indirect rule?

How can we include the voice of the colonised when there are limited and biased sources?

'Burden' Which and to whom?

Formal imperialism

one country establishes direct political control over a territory, often a protectorate or colony.

Informal imperialism

Links created by trade, investment or diplomacy, often supplemented by unequal treaties and periodic armed intervention

Historiography - J. R. Seeley (1883)

Most interesting part about B in 19thC is that it is a history of an expanding society.

Historiography - Ronald Robinson, John Gallagher (1953)

Speaking only of the formal empire is 'like judging the size and characters of icebergs solely from the parts above the water-line'. Expansion due to industrial interests. Formal colonisation occurred when resistance and 'local crises'

Historiography - Orientalism, Said (1978)

Britain defined itself against the idea of the 'orientals' - the 'others'

Historiography - John Mackenzie (1984) (2008)

Imperialism was popular and permeated all classes

Empire reinforced and developed national differences between Scotland England Wales Ireland. Each had their own connections to Empire and civilising Missions and empire was a psychological concept.

Historiography - Peter Cain and A. G. Hopkins (1987)

Formal Empire strengthened by the role of commercial elites in the Metropole, gentlemanly capitalists

Patrick O'Brien (1980s)

Profits were significant but not many reinvested domestically; maintaining empire diverted resources from more productive domestic investment (but 24% higher revenues if you invest in empire)

Criticisms to Patrick O'Brien (1980s)

He may neglect intangible benefits like geopolitical security and doesn’t emphasise the role that Empire played in allowing B to transition to services.

Historiography - John Darwin Quote (1997)

The metropole alone could not solely rule the empire. It relied also on local elites like Cecil Rhodes and the influence of missionaries and settlers.

'no other power developed more varied and far-reaching imperial relationships than Victorian B'

Historiography - Bernard Porter Quote (2006)

'For the time that she was acquiring and ruling the greatest empire ever, Britain did not look particularly imperial'

Historiography - Niall Ferguson (2002)

Aligns with Robinson and Gallagher about expansion (as well as caused by civilising mission), Empire proved that international government and capitalism could work and that alternative empires were worse.

Historiography - Richard Price (2006)

Views on Empire constantly changing and varied across classes. Hs should pay more attention to the views of the colonised

Historiography - Marc Matera (2015)

Anti-imperialist thinkers clustered in London and major cities and colonised enriched society.

Historiography - Stuart Ward (2023)

Collapse of Empire as a sense of national identity separated the four nations and led to Welsh and Scottish Nationalism

Andrew Thompson

Empire day decline shows less imperial after 1940 as it left curriculums

New Imperialism (1870-1914)

Intensified colonial expansion by European powers driven by economic interests, rivalries between nations, and a sense of a 'civilising mission'

New Imperial History

Empire is a two-way relationship

Civilising Mission - P

Civilising Mission brought support from the elites and those otherwise not involved in B's imperialism by justifying the expansion of empire as part of B's goal of civilising backward and primitive people, creating national pride and support.

Civilising Mission - E (4)

1) Thomas Macauley Minute on Education 1835, English greatest language, Britain greatest education system

2) David Livingston Missionary Travels and Research in Africa. 28,000 copies, private audience with QV

3) By end of 19thC, women leave B in increasing numbers and those who stay behind raise money - Memoirs of British Female Missionaries (1841)

4) Four Nations - 1898 Welsh National Society in Bengal, The Place of Wales in the Empire paper

Civilising Mission - A (6)

- Because "civilised" B cultural values and institutional structures are deemed inherently superior over those of native peoples, the spreading of B culture among colonised peoples is regarded as beneficial and therefore desirable. - Whiteman's burden Britain assumes the burdensome - but noble - role of bringing civilisation into strange and savage lands.

- Ropes in support from those who are not involved in the political/military/economic imperialism.

- National identity, B is uplifting backwards people. also national identity within the Four nations (MacKenzie 2008). They overcome inferiority by asserting cultural distinctiveness within Empire. e.g. Welsh National Society in Bengal 1898.

- continued covertly later on, labelled 'humanitarianism', morphed into language of development and progress in the 1920s due to fears of a population crisis

- women's role often overlooked by Hs bc empire = masculinity. Women's role shows extent of empire in society.

Mass Media - P

Hs ought to look more closely at mass media rather than politics. This explains much more of the population's engagement.

Mass Media - E

1) Pall Mall Gazette - popular anti-imperial newspaper criticising anti-Empire politicians. News coverage of General Gordon death 1885 - 'GOM' to 'MOG'.

Diaries contain General Gordon's death

2) Kennedy Jones - editor of DM always found public deeply interested in imperial affairs

3) nonliterary sources must also be examined! Empire in 1,250 song titles, 40% of UK film production in 1900 and 80% of youth unemployed visited cinema min once a week between 1936-39, 75% of cinema goers were women in 1930s

Kennedy Jones Daily Mail on Imperialism

The B public is 'deeply interested in imperial affairs' (thompson 2005)

Mass Media - A (4)

- Supply side of mass media equally valuable to the overly-fixated upon demand-side. These newspapers have to make a profit. They made their money by reflecting public opinion.

- By selling newspapers for one penny, they ensured readership to the wc and mc.

- The fact that the unemployed, 30 years before the peak of the cinema boom, were visiting the cinema and watching imperial films weekly, illustrates the extent of its hold on society

- Hs should move away from examining the occurrence of imperialism in politics to fully understand its popularity.

At home - P

Empire brought new goods into the household, creating a material connection to empire whether the population liked it or not

At home - E

1) By 1860 99% of poor families drank tea, 93% of which came from India and Ceylon in 1906

2) 80% of wheat and 45% of meat came from Empire by 1913

3) By the 18th century, Jamaica was exporting around 100,000 gallons of rum to Britain each year. Responsible for purchase of 60% of Australian wool (19thC)

At home - A (3)

- Combination of physical goods and visual advertising (EMB 1926) created popular support for the empire and an increased consciousness that these goods were imperial

- Initial resistance to meat from Australia and the colony. This increase in consumption shows growth of popularity and connections to the Empire

- Helped to accommodate the commercialisation of leisure from the last q of 19thC, alcohol offered escape from hardships

Education - P

Empire ingrained into education and popular amongst the children. It was an effective way to engage and prepare the future generation. The fact it was in education indicates it is key to Britain's national identity.

Education - E

1) 19thC interviews - wc children more responsive to lessons and activities inspired by imperialism than religious or other influences.

2) Socialist school boards of 1920s and growth of anti-colonialism worldwide - Marc Matera shows writers meeting in London.

3) Empire day 1902. 1908 - 1036 schools in London alone partook. Jim English thinks it had ability to inspire children. Contrasts with Porter who argues that the wc paid little interest in empire because their education rarely featured it.

Education - A (4)

- Education forced adults to be explicit about the knowledge and identities they wanted Britons to have, and these were tied to empire.

- The fact people rejected the anti-colonialism and the socialist school boards calling for no drills in school etc. shows its popularity.

- The empire genuinely inspired children. Men for the adventure, The Boys Own Paper and Girls Own Paper, women for the nurses, missionaries etc.

- Hs ought to not be so fixated on whether legislation was happily received e.g. Empire Day. A study of primary sources highlights that the children were engaged with imperialism.

Emigration - P

The Empire ultimately offered a sense of exoticism, adventure, and opportunity. This was popular and offered a new beginning for the people - best shown via emigration.

Emigration - E

1) EMB 1926, £3mn funding. Effective - 'Ten Pound Poms' after WWII, £10 processing fees to migrate to Australia

2) Magazines were almost anti-British, depicting the dominions as escape hatches from poverty and new opportunity. Contrasted colourful depictions of the Empire with grey England.

3) over 20 million emigrated to the Empire between 1814 and 1914, with less than half returning

4) MacKenzie 'escape hatches from poverty'

Emigration - A (3)

- Richard Price argues that there were large gaps between the imaginations and realities of the Empire. In the case of emigration, this is not true.

- Emigration crucial in creating imperial networks. People knew family and friends on the other side of the world and increasing corresponded with them, also after wwii. Workers created bonds. Gandhi's visit to Manchester 1931 despite boycotting the cotton industry, met with praise

- Emigration offered a new beginning and adventure. Orwell and Engels' descriptions of wc life show stagnation despite being written over a century apart. It made up for the thwarted aspiration in Britain.

Economy - P

Empire offered myriad economic benefits which attracted support from the political and social elites.

Economy - E (4)

1) Elites - Cain and Hopkins - gentlemanly capitalists valued empire because gave greater returns on investment due to higher risks but also availability of empire markets helped to postpone the need either to restructure the home economy or to alter international economic policy. 90% portfolio investments, and 24% higher revenues than investments into B

2) Global - Free trade with empire could have contributed 6.5% of GNP

3) Government - Empire responsible for purchase of 39% of gov bonds between 1865 and 1914. India provided 1.4mn soldiers.

4) £999,000,000 invested in Latin America as a whole by 1913.

Offer quote on Empire's contribution to the war effort

'Canadian wheat stood between the British soldiers and starvation in 1917' (1993)

Economy - A (5)

- Availability of empire markets helped to postpone the need either to restructure the home economy or to alter international economic policy. Also investments into developing countries made them dependent on Britain which essentially acted as a bank. This ensured continued demand and helped to grow financial sector.

- Empire markets were lucrative and profits were reinvested commercially rather than industrially. This helped B to offset its relative decline with Germany in industry and exploit new comparative advantage financially.

- Awareness of the gov to the importance of the Empire to the economy can be seen via the establishment of gov departments like EMB in 1926 to encourage continued economic ties and consumption, Counters Patrick Obrien’s interpretation that Empire unnecessary and costly.

- Empire upheld economic stability and contributed to war effort, making it popular with party elites and upper classes.

- Relieved population pressures due to emigration.

John Gallager quote on informal empire

'In tropical Africa the imperialists were merely scraping the bottom of the barrel.' Investments into informal empire as, if not more important, than expansion of formal empire and scramble for Africa

Expansion of Empire - P

The expansion of Empire was not due to one single interest group but the joint-effort of many

Expansion of Empire - E (6)

1) 'No other power developed more varied and far-reaching imperial relationships than Victorian B' John Darwin

2) Looking at Britain's formal empire and not also its informal one is like judging the size and characters of icebergs solely from the parts above the water-line' (John Gallagher)

3) 20 mil emigrate to empire between 1814 and 1914, less than half return.

4) Anti-British propaganda in newspapers.

5) 60% of £6 billion raised on London markets into empire

6) Occupation of Egypy 1882, Suez Canal 1869. Berlin Conference 1884

Expansion of Empire - A (4)

- Niall Ferguson, it justified the extension of Empire from 2mn acres 1837 -> 12mn 1901. The civilising mission helped to justify and propel settlers moving abroad and the expansion of Britain’s cultures. They occupied new zones, sometimes past the empire and spread Britain’s values, this was also done by Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. - bring women into this too

- Liberal imperialism, popular, even JSM subscribes to it.

Emigration, people colonised Canada and Australia, opportunity offered by Empire too strong to resist.

Economic ties.

John gallagher argues industrialists drove it. Peter Cain A. G. Hopkins argue the metropole drove it, I think both. Investments into railways and companies, and export markets and seizure of trade roots and scramble for africa to consolidate Britain’s relative economic decine.

- Material connection to empire narrowed the gap between realities and imaginations of empire. People became more attached to empire and formed connections with people abroad. It infiltrated British culture and people began to travel to empire and settle there into Canada and Australia, expanding the empire.