Apes Unit 4: Earth Systems and Resources

Core

Dense mass of solid nickel, iron, and radioactive elements that release massive amount of heat

Mantle

liquid layer of magma surrounding core, kept liquified by intense heat from core

Asthenosphere

solid, flexible outer layer of mantle, beneath the lithosphere

Lithosphere

thin, brittle layer of rock floating on top of mantle (broken up into tectonic plates)

Crust

very outer layer of the lithosphere, earth’s surface

Divergent Plate Boundary

Rising magma plume from mantle forces plates to move away from each other

What do divergent plate boundaries form?

mid-oceanic ridges, volcanoes, seafloor spreading, and rift valleys (on land)

Convergent Plate Boundary

Plates that move towards each other

What can convergent plate boundaries lead to?

subduction

Subduction

one plate being forced beneath another

What do convergent plate Boundaries form?

mountains, island arcs, earthquakes, and volcanoes

Transform Fault Plate Boundary

Plates slide past each other in opposite directions

What do Transform Fault Plate Boundaries form?

earthquakes

Convergent Cycle (Divergent) pt.1

Magma heated by earth’s core rises towards lithosphere

Convergent Cycle (Divergent) pt.2

Rising magma cools & expands, forcing oceanic plates apart

What does Convergent Cycle (Divergent) pt.2 create?

mid ocean ridges, volcanoes, spreading zones or “seafloor spreading"

Convergent Cycle (Divergent) pt.3

Magma cools, and solidifies into new lithosphere

Convergent Cycle (Divergent) pt.4

Spreading magma forces oceanic plate into cont. (subduction zone)

Convergent Cycle (Divergent) pt.4 can lead to...

Sinking oceanic plate melts back into magma +
also forces magma up, creating narrow, coastal Mtns. (Andes) & volcanoes on land

Convergent Boundary = Subduction Zone: Oceanic-Oceanic

one plate subducts underneath other

Convergent Boundary = Subduction Zone: Oceanic-Oceanic forces magma up to lithosphere surface, forming...

mid ocean volcanoes, Island arcs, and Off-shore trench

Convergent Boundary = Subduction Zone: Oceanic-Continental

dense oceanic plate subducts beneath cont. Plate & melts back into magma

Convergent Boundary = Subduction Zone: Oceanic-Continental forces magma up to lithosphere surface forming...

Coastal Mountains (Andes), Volcanoes on land, trenches, and tsunamis

Convergent Boundary = Subduction Zone: Continental-Continental

one plate subducts underneath other, forcing surface crust upward

Convergent Boundary = Subduction Zone: Continental-Continental forms...

(mountains)

Example of Convergent Boundary = Subduction Zone: Continental-Continental mountain...

Himalayas

Transform Fault Boundary creates earthquakes by...

Occurs when rough edges of plates get stuck on each other, pressure builds as plates keep sliding, but edges stay stuck, when stress overcomes the locked fault, plates suddenly release, slide past each other and release energy that shakes the lithosphere

Ring of Fire

pattern of volcanoes all around pacific plate

Ex of Ring of Fire

Japan

Hotspots

a place where molten material from earth's mantle reaches the lithosphere

Ex of Hotspots

iceland, Hawaii

Divergent Plate Boundary image:

Convergent Plate Boundary image:

Transform Fault Plate Boundary image:

Convergent Boundary = Subduction Zone: image of Oceanic-Oceanic

Convergent Boundary = Subduction Zone: image of Oceanic-Continental :

Convergent Boundary = Subduction Zone: image of Continental-Continental

Plate Tectonics

The theory that the lithosphere of Earth is divided into plates, most of which are in constant motion

Tectonic Cycle

The sum of the processes that build up and break down the lithosphere

Seafloor Spreading

The formation of new ocean crust as a result of magma pushing upward and outward from earth's mantle to the surface

Fault

A fracture in rock caused by a movement of Earth's crust

Seismic Activity

The frequency and intensity if earthquakes experienced over time

Fault Zone

A large expanse of rock where a fault has occurred

Earthquake

The sudden movement of Earth's crust caused by a release of potential energy along a geological fault and usually causing a vibration or trembling at the Earth's surface

Epicenter

The exact point on the surface of earth directly above the location where rock ruptures during an earthquake

Richter Scale

A scale that measures the largest ground movement that occurs during an earthquake

Tsunami

A series of waves in the ocean caused by seismic activity or an undersea volcano

Rock Cycle

The geological cycle governing the constant formation, alteration, and destruction of rock material that results from tectonics, weathering, and erosion, among other processes

Igneous Rock

Rock formed directly from magma

Intrusive Igneous Rock

Igneous rock that forms when magma rises up and cools in a place underground

Extrusive Igneous Rock

Rock that forms when magma cools above the surface of earth

Fracture

In geology, a crack that occurs in rock as it cools

Sedimentary Rock

Rock that forms when sediments such as muds, sands, or gravels are compressed by overlying sediments

Metamorphic Rock

Rock that forms when sedimentary rock, igneous rock, or metamorphic rock is subjected to high temperature and pressure

Physical Weathering

The mechanical breakdown of rocks and minerals

Chemical Weathering

The breakdown of rocks and minerals by chemical reactions, the dissolving of chemical elements from rocks, or both

Biological Weathering

roots of trees crack rocks

Acid Precipitation

Precipitation high in sulfuric acid and nitric acid from reactions between water vapor and sulfur and nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere

Acid Precipitation is also known as...

Acid Rain

Acid Precipitation/Acid Rain is an example of ___ Weathering

Chemical

Erosion

The physical removal of rock fragments from a landscape or ecosystem

Erosion occurs when...

Transport of weathered rock fragments by wind and rain or
carried to new location and deposited (deposition)

Deposition

Accumulation or depositing of eroded material such as sediment, rock fragments, or soil

Parent Material

The underlying rock material from which the inorganic components of a soil are derived

Soil Degration

The loss of some or all of a soil's ability to support plant growth

Horizon

A horizontal layer in a soil defined by distinctive physical features such as texture and color

O-Horizon

layer of organic matter (plant roots, dead leaves, animal waste, etc) on top of soil and provides nutrients and limits H2O loss to evaportation

A-Horizon (topsoil)

A-Horizon has most biological activity (earthworms, soil microbes) breaking down organic matter to release nutrients

B-Horizon (subsoil)

lighter layer below topsoil, mostly made of minerals w/little to no org. matter and contains some nutrients

C-Horizon

least weathered soil that is closest to the parent material, sometimes called bedrock

Humus

The most fully decomposed organic matter in the lowest section of the O-Horizon

Where is humus typicially located

A-Horizon/ Topsoil

E-Horizon

Zone of leaching of metals and nutrients; occurs in some soils beneath either the O horizon or the A horizon (found in some acidic soils)

Effects on Soil Form:

Parent material, Topography, Climate, and Organisms

Topography:

steep slope = too much erosion; more level ground = deposition

Climate:

warmer = faster breakdown of org. matter;
more precip. = more weathering, erosion + deposition

Organisms:

Soil organisms like bacteria, fungi, worms breakdown organic matter

Where is O-Horizon?

Top

Where is A-Horizon?

Second

Where is E-Horizon?

Below A, third (sometimes)

Where is B-Horizon?

Third if under A/ fourth if under E

Where is C-Horizon?

bottom

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

The ability of a particular soil to absorb and release cations (amount of clay in soil)

Base Saturation

The proportion of soil bases to soil acids, expressed as a percentage

Soil Permeability

Depends on the soil's texture (clay, sand and silt)

Porosity

The amount of pore space a soil has

Sand

Has the biggest particle size, more porous/higher porosity and low soil permeability

Silt

Mid particle size, mid level of porosity and mid soil permeability

Clay

smallest particle size, low porous/ lower porosity, and high soil permeability

H2O holding Capacity

how well water is retained, or held by a soil

Factors that increase H2O holding capacity

Aerated soil (biological activity)
Compost/humus/organic matter
Clay content
Root structure, especially natives

Factors that decrease H2O holding capacity

Compacted soil (machines, cows)
Topsoil erosion
Sand
Root loss

Factors that increase soil nutrients

Organic matter (releases nutrients)
Humus (holds and releases nutrients)
Decomposer activity (recycles nut.)
Clay (neg. charge binds pos. nutrients)
Bases (Calcium carbonate - limestone)

Factors that decrease soil nutrients

Acids leach pos. charge nutrients
Excessive rain/irr. leeches nutrients
Excessive farming depletes nut.
Topsoil erosion

How to test soil texture

Let soil settle in jar of water. Measure 3 layers that form (sand, silt, clay)

what soil texture tells about soil

% of sand, silt, and clay - how porous or permeable soil it

How to test soil permeability

Time for H2O to drain through column of soil

what soil permeability tells about soil

How easily water drains through soil. Too high, soil dries out. Too low, roots don’t get water or drown. Medium = optimal

How to test soil pH

pH strip - H+ ion concentration

What pH tells about soil

How acidic (low pH) or basic/alkaline (high pH) soil is. More acidic soil = less nutrient availability