Social Studies 20-1 IB: Introduction to Nationalism + Canada

Nation

An abstract concept that exists in the feelings and minds of other people; a group of people who share a sense of belonging.

They can have the following things in common as collective identity is a part of all nations:

• Language

• Ethnicity

• Culture

• Commonality

It is an internal connection to others; it is a shared experience and a desire to belong.

Country

A distinct physical territory with a government; countries have official borders that are recognized by other countries.

Nation State

Another name for a country - an internationally recognized state that has independence over their own affairs, a government, and defined territory.

International

Relationships between countries or nation states. May cooperate with one another for economic, political, or social reasons.

Nationalism

A sense of loyalty and devotion to one's nation and a desire for that nation to act independently. The notion that one's nation, and its interests are the most important.

Patriotism

Love of a country and an interest in it's well-being. A sense of loyalty that may be expressed in various ways.

Self-determination

The power of people within a nation-state or nation to make their own decisions about what is in their interest.

Sovereignty

The political authority of a state to govern itself- a country that is able to make its own decisions

Stateless Nation

A group of people who identify as a nation, but who do not have their own nation-state, they may or may not have self-determination.

--> Stateless-nations are often ethnic minority groups who live within a larger political entity.

Understandings of Nationalism

• Linguistic/Language

• Ethnic

• Cultural

• Religion

• Geographic

• Relationship to Land

• Spiritual

• Political/Civic

Two Major Types:

1. Ethnic Nationalism

2. Civic Nationalism

Linguistic Understandings of a Nation

• When a language is spoken by a number of people, it can create a sense of belonging.

• Language helps create a shared worldview and allows us to pass our history, culture, traditions onto future generations.

Example:

In Quebec, language laws have been passed to ensure the survival of the French language by making French the official language.

---> Signs, TV, radio and music help promote the French language and culture throughout the province.

Ethnic Understandings of a Nation

• Members of a nation may share ties such as ancestry, family ties, language, values and traditions.

• Usually they share a common history, many nations come into being because people share the same ethnic background.

• Most nation-states are composed of people of various ethnicities.

• May be used as a positive force to bring people together, or a negative force as it may cause feelings of superiority.

Example:

Ethnic Albanians are tied together by a common ancestry.

---> This binds their nation together, but also creates tension between those who are not "ethnic Albanians".

Cultural Understandings of a Nation

• Mainly based on the way of life a group of people share.

• Culture can inspire a sense of nationalism through such things as shared values, beliefs, traditions, stories, history, food, clothing, arts, TV and film.

Example:

Many First Nation communities have a nation based on their culture.

---> The culture of the Haida in BC is different from the Cree of the plains

Religious Understandings of a Nation

• Religion may play a key role in the development of a nation.

Common beliefs about life, death and how to treat one another bind people together.

Example:

Many Italians practice the Roman-Catholic faith which guides their way of life.

Geographic Understandings of a Nation

• Geography can act as physical barriers that isolate people

• Geography (weather, climate, landscapes) may lead people to develop their own way of life.

Example:

For most of history, Tibet was largely isolated from the rest of the world on a high plateau.

---> Their culture grew in the mountains for thousands of years.

Relationship to Land as Understandings of a Nation

• The land you live on can inspire and create a sense of connection for people.

Example:

The Blackfoot people of Southern Alberta have a phrase "spirit of place" to describe the spiritual connection between humans and a physical place. This includes sacred sites and places that have stories and myths.

Spiritual Understandings of a Nation

• People may share a sense of spirituality that helps unite them. Can be associated with religious beliefs, but does not necessarily have to be tied to organized religion. Can be as simple as ethical and moral values or the meaning of life.

Example:

In countries like Bhutan, we can see a form of nationalism influenced by Buddhist principles. Bhutan's approach prioritizes the well-being of its people and the environment, reflecting a Buddhist perspective on compassion and interconnectedness.

Political/Civic Understandings of a Nation

• Many believe a group of people are only a nation if they have their own government

• The citizenship of a nation creates a very tangible sense of belonging. This may be done through documentation such as birth certificates and passports, or by shared collective rights and responsibilities.

Example:

Canada is a civic nation that binds citizens through shared freedoms such as outlined in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

Ethnic Nationalism vs. Civic Nationalism

Ethnic Nationalism: Pre-existing characteristics or traditions lead to a shared sense of nation.

---> The people may then create a nation state with others who share their sense of nation.

Civic Nationalism: People agree to live by shared laws.

---> Mutual respect for laws helps people to live together peacefully

Role of Myths in Nationalism

• Create Unity

• Create a feeling of shared history

• Provide an ideal to strive towards

• Justify the pursuit of national interests

Example:

Canada as an 'inclusive' nation

○ We pride ourselves on welcoming all outsiders

○ Prejudice against Chinese immigrants/Japanese Internment/Refusal of Jewish refugees in the past

Seven Years War

Competition between France and Britain during the colonial era finally erupted in the Seven Years' War, which lasted from 1756 to 1763. This war drew in other European powers and spread to colonies in North America, West Africa, Cuba, the Philippines, and India.

---> As a result, some historians say it was the first truly global war.

***As a result of the war, in North America, the British took over New France as one of the territories gained and became the dominant colonial power in the region.

Royal Proclamation of 1763

The Royal Proclamation established the basis for governing the North American territories surrendered by France to Britain in the Treaty of Paris, 1763, following the Seven Years' War.

• It introduced policies meant to assimilate the French population to British rule. These policies ultimately failed and were replaced by the Québec Act of 1774.

• The Royal Proclamation also set the constitutional structure for the negotiation of treaties with the Indigenous inhabitants of large sections of Canada.

War of 1812

Rejection of American Manifest Destiny

---> Belief that the British-Canadians defeated the American invaders

---> Many Americans think they won as well

Statue of Westminster 1931

Canada officially gains control over its foreign policy.

- Canada had to participate in WWI, but had choice in WWII

- Still, certain limitations remained where Canada did not have legal standing to change its constitution until the Constitution Act of 1982.

MAPL System

• The government takes an active role in promoting Canadian cultural products, especially mass media items (like through the CRTC)

• Music and the MAPL system, radios stations must play 35% MAPL content

To qualify as 'Canadian content' a musical selection must generally fulfill at least TWO of the following conditions:

● M (music) -- the music is composed entirely by a Canadian.

● A (artist) -- the music is, or the lyrics are, performed principally by a Canadian.

● P (production) -- the musical selection consists of a live performance that is:

(i) recorded wholly in Canada, or

(ii) performed wholly in Canada and broadcast live in Canada.

● L (lyrics) -- the lyrics are written entirely by a Canadian.

Canada as a Nation

• The development of Canada as a nation is complex.

• There are many groups and individuals who contributed to the formation of Canada over many years.

• Often, the story of Canada has been told from only the perspective of the British colonialists.

• The story of Canada has often left out th contributions of Indigenous, Asian, African, French and other minority groups.

• To understand the nation of Canada, all perspectives must be considered.

British North America's Transformation into the Province of Canada

• Early 1800s Canada (known as British North America) was controlled by Britain

• 1841 - British Government merged Upper Canada (Anglophone) and Lower Canada (Francophone) into one; the Province of Canada

• Upper Canada (Ontario) became Canada West

• Lower Canada became Canada East

Responsible Government

A government that answers (is accountable) to the people (who elect it) rather than to colonial governors.

---> The concept was introduced in Canada by Louis-Hippolyte LaFontaine and Robert Baldwin in the 1840s.

In Canada:

There was one legislative assembly - equal representatives from Canada West and Canada East.

---> The issues were that (1) only English was spoken in assembly and (2) Canada West had a larger population.

*LaFontaine (Canada East) and Baldwin (Canada West) wanted responsible government and by 1848, Canada had responsible government.

Louis-Hippolyte LaFontaine

Louis-Hippolyte LaFontaine was a British politician who became the first premier of the United Province of Canada.

---> LaFontaine worked with Robert Baldwin to unite Upper and Lower Canada.

---> He helped develop and institute the concept of responsible government. This would become an important feature in the Canadian parliamentary system.

Robert Baldwin

Robert Baldwin was a British politician who worked with Lafontaine on developing and leading the responsible system of government in the United Province of Canada from 1842 to 1843.

---> Their leadership was seen as a first step towards independence from Britain.

Henri Bourassa

French-Canadian nationalist leader who emphasized the importance of independence for Canada from Britain, and more importantly was an advocate for French Canadian rights.

Fathers of Confederation

The Fathers of Confederation refers to the thirty-six British men who met at several conferences that led to the confederation of Canada.

- The Charlottetown Conference and the Québec Conference were held in 1864.

• Some of the Fathers of Confederation met at these conferences and the meetings led to the creation of a constitution and the country of Canada.

• Sir John A. Macdonald was Canada's first prime minister and is often seen as the Father of Confederation.

Confederation 1867

The 1867 unification of present-day Ontario, Québec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia into one country—Canada.

• External forces included the United States' desire for sovereignty from Britain: the War of 1812, the American Civil War, and growing American imperialism.

• These factors contributed to the desire to unify the provinces (British colonies) into a single, independent country to avoid being absorbed by the country to the south.

• The goal of unifying into an independent country was shared not only by the Fathers of Confederation, but also by many citizens of the colonies.

• John A. Macdonald and George-Étienne Cartier wanted an independent Canada that preserved its British heritage and promoted the language and culture of its Francophone citizens

British North America (BNA) Act

BNA Act created Canada ("The Dominion of Canada"):

- Two levels of representative and responsible government

- Federal - national affairs

- Four Provinces would manage their own affairs

- Ensure Québec could affirm and promote their language and culture

John A. Macdonald & Evolving Visions of Canada

First prime minister of Canada and father of Confederation who envisioned a country from sea to sea.

---> When British Columbia joined Canada, he promised the Canadian Pacific Railway

- Negotiations with First Nations for land - became government property

- Since Canada wanted to expand its territory north and west, British law, established in the Royal Proclamation of 1763, dictated that Canada must sign treaties with the First Nations peoples who were living on the territory before they could settle or live there.

Populating the West

Wilfrid Laurier, 1896 - believes the US will try and take the prairies

• Clifford Sifton to populate the West - increase in British and American immigrants

• Communities of Poles, Germans, Ukrainians, Finns, Norwegians

Clifford Sifton

• Clifford Sifton was a Canadian politician who encouraged and facilitated a mass migration of Europeans to western Canada in the early 1900s.

• His policies and work led to millions of immigrants coming from Europe to settle in Canada.

• These policies excluded immigrants from non-European nations. Many argue that Canada as a nation has strong connections to European culture and worldview because of a focus on accepting European immigrants.

Ukrainian Immigration

• Ukrainians first came to Canada in the 19th century. The initial influx came as the Canadian government promoted the immigration of farmers.

• When they arrived in Canada, the Ukrainians continued to face hardships. Those who could not make a living off of the land often died.

• They faced persecution from native-born Canadians who discriminated against the Ukrainians because they spoke a foreign language and had different customs.

• During the First World War, thousands of Ukrainian Canadians were imprisoned as enemy aliens due to their origins in the Austro-Hungarian Empire

Internment Camps

The internment of Ukrainian Canadians in WWI and Japanese Canadians in WWII in internment/work camps due to them being suspected of being enemy aliens.

Enemy Alien

A label assigned during World War I and World War II to people from countries that were at war with Canada. The rights of enemy aliens were sometimes restricted, and some were even interned in camps.

Early Immigration in Canada

• Chinese Immigration Act

---> 1885 - Chinese Head Tax

---> 1923 - Banned immigration from China

---> No rights

• Black Immigration in 1783

---> Came with loyalists and settled in the Halifax area

---> Headed to Alberta and settled in Amber Valley but the city of Edmonton signed a petition in 1910 to halt immigration.

• 1962 - Changes finally occurred to Immigration Act to open doors to all people

• 1971 - "multiculturalism within a bilingual framework"

Loyalties

Loyalty has a role to play in nationalism:

- Every nation requires its members to have some sort of dedication to the maintenance of the nation in order to keep the nation functioning.

---> If members have no loyalty, then they will likely not contribute to that nation.

Nationalist Loyalty

A dedication or commitment to one's nation.

Examples: To a county (i.e. Canada), religion, or ethnic group.

Note: The type of loyalty someone has can be dependent on the person (i.e. a dedication to a religion can be a commitment to a nation or could be something more personal that doesn't connect them to a nation)

Non-nationalist Loyalty

A dedication or commitment to some other part of your identity or way of life that is not connected to the nation.

Examples: Family, friends and school groups.

Contending Loyalties

A phrase that describes occurrences when a person's different loyalties come into conflict with each other.

• Choosing between two loyalties can be difficult where having to choose which loyalty to be dedicated to can cause someone to question their identity.

• People will often face situations where they must decide to which group their loyalty really lies.

• Sometimes non-nationalist loyalties will come into conflict with nationalist loyalties.

Region

A geographical area that can be defined in different ways:

• a part of province or city (southern Alberta, northern

Edmonton)

• an area of the country (the Maritimes)

• or several provinces together (the prairies)

Regional Loyalties

A dedication or commitment to one's region.

Example: Some Albertans have faced dealing with tension between their national and regional loyalties.

• Alberta's economy has seen growth in the last 20 years, therefore Alberta's tax dollars are shared amongst the other provinces.

---> Albertans can feel a contending loyalty with the nation of Canada when they feel the Canadian government makes decisions that do not support their economic interests.

Examples:

• Equalization payments.

• The Canadian government has introduced a carbon tax and many Albertans feel this will reduce profits and hurt the economy.

Western Alienation

The feeling that the western region of Canada is often left out by the rest of Canada.

- Some Albertans feel loyalty to the West, and to Alberta and the promotion of economic interests that deal with oil and gas.

Equalization Payments

• The federal government receives money from taxes it collects from Canadians and businesses. It distributes this money to

provinces who are in need. Less prosperous provinces receive more money than prosperous ones.

---> Ensures that public services are more or less equally available to all Canadians.

Reconciling Contending Loyalties

Contending loyalties can affect the nationalism that people express within a nation.

• Nationalism in Alberta could be expressed differently than nationalism expressed in Nunavut because of the difference in contending loyalties in each area.

• People within a nation can try to diminish the contention in several ways:

○ Ignore contending loyalties.

○ Choose one loyalty over the other.

○ Work to make change and have the loyalties come into agreement.

• Some people believe that if there are too many contending loyalties within a nation, it can be difficult for that nation to maintain the loyalty of its people and the well-being of the nation.

Reconciling Contending Loyalties in Canada

In Canada, there have been many attempts to reconcile contending nationalist loyalties.

• Ways that Canada has addressed contending nationalist loyalties include:

○ Multiculturalism as an official policy

○ Bilingualism

○ Reasonable accommodation

Multiculturalism

A belief, doctrine, or policy that embraces the idea of ethnic or cultural diversity and promotes a culturally pluralistic society.

In 1971, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau introduced multiculturalism as an official government policy.

• This policy aimed to promote cultural freedom for all citizens in Canada.

• The policy was made in recognition of the contributions made by various cultural and ethnic communities to Canadian society.

• The policy came as a result of recommendations made by the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism.

Bilingualism & Biculturalism in Canada

• Caused by the Bi and Bi Commission

---> From 1963-1969, the Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism in Canada recommended changes to federal and provincial language policies.

• This commission was a way to reconcile some of the challenges that French Canadians faced.

• The commission wanted to address the following:

○ Language and cultural protection

○ More political opportunities for Francophone communities

○ More economic opportunities for Francophone communities

Note: The Official Languages Act came soon after in 1969, which made English and French official languages; this would be strengthened by the Canadian Charter of Rights & Freedoms.

Reasonable Accomodation

The process of changing laws or policies in a nation to incorporate cultural inclusion and diversity.

Example: The inclusion of religious headwear in various occupations or government positions in Canada.

---> This has been addressed in many areas of Canadian society such as:

○ Law enforcement

○ Sporting institutions

○ Immigration and transportation services

Background to Québec Nationalism Before 1960

• English-French relations tense for much of Canadian history

---> French Canadians: minority language, culture and religion (Catholic) in an English majority country

Maurice Duplessis

• From 1936-1959, was the leader of the Union Nationale party; used these tensions between English and French Canadians to get elected as Premier of Québec

- Promoted Québec nationalism (i.e. introduced Québec flag with the fleur-de-lis)

- However, known for bribery and corruption scandals

---> Accused of taking bribes from English-Canadian and

American companies, promising them cheap labour and low taxes if they invested in Quebec by:

○ Discouraging and banning labour unions/rights and striking (i.e. suppressing the Asbestos Strike of 1949)

○ Passing the Padlock Law in 1937 to "fight communism"

Consequences of Duplessis' Leadership

While the vast majority of Québec was Francophone, the language of business was English

---> Of the 50 largest companies in Québec, only 3 were French

---> Anglophone minority given the best, highest paying jobs

---> French majority often suffered under terrible working conditions and low income, with little chance to get ahead

- As a result, many felt they were exploited and discriminated against in their own land by foreign, English-speaking elites

- Some Francophones likened their situation to a colonized people who needed independence from their colonial rulers

***Many felt that Québec should separate completely from Canada and become its own independent country, leading to the separatist movement!

- Separatists vs Federalists

Separatists (Sovreigntists)

In Canada, people who support the idea of Québec's becoming an independent nation-state that can control its own destiny.

Federalists

People who support a federal system of government. In Canada, people who oppose Québec sovereignty and believe that Québec should remain a Canadian province, ensuring its place in Confederation.

---> Believed Québec should remain part of Canada, but perhaps be given special rights and privileges to protect French language, culture and economic conditions

The Quiet Revolution (1960)

The Québec Liberal Party, led by Jean Lesage, defeats the Union Nationale in provincial elections

Note: The Union Nationale dominated Québec politics for over 20 years until the death of its leader, Maurice Duplessis, in 1959

-Lesage is a Québec Nationalist who promises to make French Canadians "Maîtres chez nous" ("Masters in our own home")

Promises included:

○ Ending corruption and bribery of the Duplessis era

○ Encouraging unions, increasing rights and pay for workers

○ Modernize education, health care and other public services

○ Nationalize Québec industries, especially electricity (make them owned and controlled by the Québec government instead of private English companies)

---> Called these broad changes La Revolution Tranquille aka "The Quiet Revolution"

Jean Lesage

Québec nationalist (but was also a federalist) who was a key player in the Quiet Revolution, reigning in broad changes for Québec; believed Québec deserved more rights, but wanted to achieve that in the framework of Canada.

Front de Libération du Québec (FLQ)

A radical separatist group formed in Québec in the early 1960s.

First Bombing Attack by FLQ (March 1963)

From 1963-1970, the FLQ committed over 200 violent acts in Québec, including bank robberies and bombings.

***The FLQ attacked symbols of English Canadian authority, such as English-owned corporations and federal government buildings.

- They placed bombs in mailboxes in Westmount, a wealthy, English-speaking neighbourhood in Montreal.

- In 1969, they bombed the Montréal Stock Exchange, injuring 27 people.

- Later that year, they bombed the home of the Mayor of Montréal (he was a federalist)

- By 1970, six people had been killed by the FLQ, while dozens more had been seriously wounded

Bi and Bi Commission (July 1963)

Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism ("Bi and Bi Commission") was established by Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson.

Purpose: To study the problems and challenges faced by French Canadians in Canada and suggest solutions to solve them

Among the recommendations:

- English and French should both be declared the official languages of Canada (Canada should be officially bilingual)

- This was only a recommendation by the commission

- The government would need to act on this recommendation in order to achieve this goal.

New Canadian Flag (February 1965)

Lester B. Pearson wanted to replace the old Canadian flag, which contained British symbols (the Union Jack) with a new Canadian flag that represented all Canadians (including English and French)

---> The Maple Leaf flag was chosen and made Canada's official flag on February 15, 1965

Pearson hoped the new flag would help bring English and French Canadians together.

---> Instead, the new flag caused heated debates and controversy:

- Many English Canadians preferred the old flag, while many French Canadians continued to use the Québec flag (the Fleur-de-Lis)

- Over time, more Canadians began to accept the new flag

Pierre Trudeau Elected Prime Minister (April 1968)

Pierre Trudeau became Canadian Prime Minister

- He was from a wealthy French Canadian family

- He became wildly popular in Canada, causing a media sensation known as "Trudeaumania"

---> Was a charismatic and unconventional politician for the time, with a "carefree" persona

- Seen as a refreshing change from typical rigid and uptight politicians

- Supported many progressive social policies, such as legalizing divorce and gay rights

***Stance towards Québec: A devoted FEDERALIST (strongly opposed separatism)

---> Believed that Canada should do more for Québec, but insisted that Québec must remain part of Canada

Parti Québécois Formed (October 1968)

Most Québécois were against the violence of the FLQ, but many supported Québec independence

---> In 1968, the Parti Québécois (PQ), a Quebec separatist political party, was formed to work to independence through democractic means.

- Leader: René Lévesque

René Lévesque

Separatist and first leader of the Parti Québécois who promised Québec voters he would work towards independence from Canada through peaceful and democratic means.

Official Languages Act (September 1969)

Pierre Trudeau, acting on the recommendations of the earlier Bi and Bi Commission, introduced the Official Languages Act.

---> This law made Canada officially bilingual; English and French were now official languages of Canada

Some requirements of the law:

• Canadians must be allowed to deal with government and courts in either English or French

--->This also meant many more government jobs for French speakers

• Packaging of all products was required to be labelled in both English and French

• French immersion programs introduced in all provinces

Perspectives:

• Many English Canadians thought this law went too far and that the government was trying to force French on them

• Many French Canadians thought the law did not go far enough and still insisted on independence for Québec

The October Crisis (FLQ Crisis) (October-December 1970)

In a major escalation, the FLQ kidnapped the British Trade Commissioner, James Cross, and five days later kidnapped the Québec Deputy Premier, Pierre Laporte

---> They made 7 demands, including the release of FLQ prisoners, who had been jailed for bombings and other attacks

In order to root out the kidnappers and put an end to FLQ violence, Pierre Trudeau used the War Measures Act for the first time in Canadian history during peacetime

---> Only ever used during WWI and WWII

- Moved 10,000 soldiers into Québec and gave authorities special emergency powers to arrest and detain anyone suspected of FLQ involvement, even without evidence or charges

---> In the end, Pierre Laporte was killed by his kidnappers, while James Cross was found and released after two months in captivity

***After this shocking event, the FLQ lost support and died out in Québec, but many issues remained unresolved

- Québec nationalists turned towards peaceful and democratic methods for achieving independence

War Measures Act

An Act that gives the federal government emergency powers during wartime, such as suspending civil rights/liberties (i.e. detaining people without laying charges).

Parti Québécois Elected (November 1976)

The Parti Québécois (PQ), Québec's major separatist party, won a sweeping victory in the Québéc provincial elections (71 out of 110 seats).

---> Major shock for the country - many English Canadians saw this as the beginning of the end of a united Canada

- René Lévesque, the party leader, insisted that a vote for the PQ was not necessarily a vote for independence

---> Instead, he promised that such a step would only be taken after a provincial referendum (a vote on the issue)

- He also promised to strengthen the French language and culture in Québec

Bill 101 (August 1977)

Bill 101, also known as the Charter of the French Language, was introduced by the Parti Québécois

***French made the only official language of Québec

1) French was to be the language of government, courts, businesses, workplaces and schools

2) All commercial outdoor signs had to be in French

3) Children of immigrants had to attend French schools.

Perspectives:

- Francophones in Québec mostly supported the law while anglophones in Québec and English speakers across Canada were outraged

---> Many supported the idea of a bilingual country, but now saw Quebec as betraying that vision

Québec Referendum (First Referendum) (May 1980)

In 1980, PQ held a referendum in Québec on the issue of independence

***The referendum proposed a less strict form of independence called "sovereignty-association"

---> This meant that Québec would be "sovereign" (independent) in some ways, including controlling its own taxes, social policies, citizenship and immigration laws.

-However, it would also remain "associated" with Canada in other ways, including maintaining a common currency and close economic ties.

Prime Minister Trudeau represented the "no" to separation side.

---> He promised French Canadians a new Canadian constitution that would recognize special rights for Québec.

***The result of the referendum was a clear victory for Trudeau and defeat for the PQ and separatism.

- About 60% of Québec voters rejected separation and instead chose to remain part of Canada

Constitution Act (April 17, 1982)

On 17 April 1982, Queen Elizabeth II signed the new Constitution Act, allowing Canada to change its constitution based on the agreement between Trudeau and 9 premiers.

***However, Lévesque (premier of Québec at the time) did not agree, and Québec remained "outside" the constitution

---> Many Québécois felt betrayed by Trudeau for moving on with the constitution, making the separatist movement even stronger than before.

Background:

With the Québec referendum over, Trudeau began work on a new constitution, but the power to change Canada's constitution still remained with Britain.

---> Trudeau had to "patriate" the constitution (i.e. give Canada the power to change its own constitution; bring the constitution "home" to Canada)

- He also wanted to include a Charter of Rights and Freedoms in the new constitution, which would guarantee basic democratic rights for all Canadians

Perspectives:

- Many provincial leaders (premiers) did not approve of Trudeau's plan, since it limited the powers of the provincial governments (they would not be allowed to pass any laws that went against the rights and freedoms in the Charter)

- However, after negotiations with all the premiers, they reached an agreement... except for Québec Premier René Lévesque, who wanted stronger rights and privileges for Québec in the new constitution

---> Trudeau believed Lévesque would never agree to any deal, and so decided to proceed with the new constitution without him

Meech Lake Accord (1987-1990)

The Conservative Party won the 1984 federal election and its leader, Brian Mulroney became Prime Minister (Trudeau retired before the election)

---> In April 1987, Mulroney and all 10 provincial premiers met in Meech Lake, Québec to negotiate an agreement to bring Québec into the constitution

- Québec demanded recognition as a "distinct society" with special rights while other premiers had their own demands for their provinces

-In the end, all 10 provinces agreed to the proposals, including Québec!

***However, according to constitutional rules, each provincial legislature now had 3 years to ratify (a vote to officially accept) the Meech Lake Accord

---> As the June 23, 1990 deadline approached, Manitoba had not yet ratified

• Elijah Harper, a First Nations member of the Manitoba legislature, objected to the Accord since it only considered Québec a distinct society, but ignored First Nations, which he argued were also a distinct society within Canada.

---> With Harper's objection, Manitoba failed to ratify by the deadline, resulting in the failure of the Meech Lake Accord

Result: Yet again, frustration grew in Québec and voices of separatism grew louder.

Creation of the Bloc Québécois (1991)

After the failure of Meech Lake, a number of Conservative and Liberal MPs defected from their parties in order to form a new federal political party, the Bloc Québécois

---> Lucien Bouchard, a former member of Brian Mulroney's Conservative government, became the Bloc's first leader

***The Bloc Québécois was the first federal separatist party whose chief goal was independence for Quebec

Note: The Parti Québécois (PQ) was a separatist party at the Québec provincial level

***Though the Bloc and PQ are technically different parties, they have always maintained close ties with the Bloc Québécois remaining a powerful force in federal politics to this day.

Lucien Bouchard

Formerly a cabinet minister in Prime Minister Mulroney's Progressive Conservative government, he left the party and became leader of the separatist Bloc Québécois.

Charlottetown Accord (October 1992)

In 1992, Mulroney tried again to reform the constitution to include Québec.

---> This time, national conferences were held to get input from Canadians, including groups from all provinces, territories and indigenous peoples

- At the final conference in Charlottetown, PEI, provincial, federal and indigenous representatives announced they reached an agreement: The Charlottetown Accord was similar to the earlier Meech Lake Accord

---> Included recognition of Quebec as a "distinct society" and also included First Nations' rights to self-government

However, many groups still opposed the Accord for various reasons:

1) Former PM Pierre Trudeau opposed it, arguing it gave too much power to the provinces over the federal government

2) Many Québécois opposed it because they felt it didn't give Quebec enough power

In October 1992, Mulroney put the proposal to a national referendum

- After the votes were counted, 54.4% of Canadians voted "No" to the proposal

Results: Once again, constitutional reform failed and Québec remained outside the Canadian constitution PLUS once again, the voices of separatism in Québec grew louder.

Federal Elections of 1993 (October 1993)

After the failures of Meech Lake and Charlottetown, Mulroney and the Conservatives were deeply unpopular in Canada.

---> In the 1993 federal elections, the Conservatives suffered the worst defeat in Canadian electoral history; they went from 169 seats to only 2 seats in Parliament!

---> The Liberal Party, led by Jean Chrétien, won the election in a landslide, winning 177 seats (out of 295).

---> BUT: the Bloc Québécois became the Official Opposition (second biggest party) winning 54 seats in Parliament

*All their seats were from the province of Québec; the Bloc was now in a powerful position to influence the federal government to act in the interests of Québec

Québec Referendum (Second Referendum) (October 1995)

The failure of Meech Lake and Charlottetown Accords fanned the flames of separatism in Québec where in 1994, the Parti Québécois was elected again in Québec; they held ANOTHER referendum on Québec independence.

***This time, the question was NOT for a "sovereignty-association" as it had been during the 1980 referendum, but for FULL national independence from Canada.

The referendum date was set for October 30, 1995.

- As polls closed and ballots were counted, it became clear that the vote was extremely close - Canadians sat glued to their TVs as the results came in:

***In the end, 49.4% voted "yes" to separation, while 50.6% voted "no".

Result: Québec remained with Canada, but only by a narrow margin; Canada had never been so close to breaking up.

Clarity Act (2000)

After the 1995 referendum, many Canadians criticized the confusing wording of the question asked on the ballot; it was felt that the Québec government used unclear wording to trick people into voting for independence.

---> Many also criticized the very idea of a referendum as a means of achieving independence (After all, what if 50.6% had voted "yes"? Was that enough for Québec to separate? What about all the Québecers who voted "no"?)

In response to these issues, Prime Minister Jean Chrétien's Liberal government passed the "Clarity Act"

---> This law required that any future referendums ask a "clear question" and be won with a "clear majority" of the vote (the "yes" vote would have to win by a wide margin)

***Ironically, the Clarity Act did not clarify what exactly was meant by "clear question" and "clear majority"

---> The federal government could therefore potentially reject any future referendum results and refuse to negotiate with Québec

Result: The Clarity Act therefore made it very UNLIKELY that Québec would ever be able to separate from Canada via a referendum.

First Nations Perspectives on Nationalism

• Nationalism is a complex issue for First Nations in Canada and there are diverse perspectives on the topic of nationalism.

• Government policies and legislation that have directly impacted First Nations have contributed to the diversity of perspectives.

Indian Act (1876)

The Indian Act was passed by the government of Canada in 1876.

• The Indian Act is a collection of hundreds of laws that dictate what First Nations people can and can't do.

• Oppressive laws were put into place, including:

○ the creation of Residential Schools.

○ the banning of cultural ceremonies and practices.

○ the creation of reserves and the pass system which didn't allow people to leave the reserve.

• The Indian Act legislated policies that allowed the government to remove or ignore the promises made to First Nations people in the treaties.

• This allowed the government to settle areas and extract resources without recognition of the legal rights of the First Nations people.

Impacts:

•The oppressive policies of the Indian Act have allowed the Canadian government to keep Indigenous people out of the mainstream political, social and economic society.

• This has also contributed to the lack of recognition of Indigenous people as part of the history of Canada as a nation.

The Numbered Treaties (1871-1921)

• From 1871 to 1921 there were eleven treaties signed between various First Nations groups and the British monarch.

• The British crown negotiated and signed treaties with First Nations people on behalf of the Canadian government.

• The British believed that the agreements were for the First Nations people to cede their land to the Canadian government.

• The First Nations believed that the agreements were to share the land with Canada.

Importance:

• The eleven numbered treaties are foundational to the creation of Canada as a nation.

• The numbered treaties laid the foundation for the creation of provinces that would join confederation.

• The treaties were also agreements between sovereign groups, and established a relationship between First Nations people and the nation of Canada.

Treaties 1 to 7

• Solidified Canada's claim to lands north of the US-Canada border.

• Enabled the construction of a national railway.

• Opened the lands of the North-West Territories to agricultural settlement.

Treaties 8 to 11

• Facilitated access to natural resources in northern Canada.

• Further opened the West for settlement.

• Secured a connection between British Columbia and central Canada.

Beliefs about the Benefits of Treaties (The Crown vs. First Nations)

The Crown believed they were to receive:

• peaceful access to lands for settlement, farming, railways and development.

• minimal costs for westward expansion and prevention of costly wars with First Nations peoples.

• protection for Western lands by stopping American expansion.

First Nations believed they were receiving:

• physical survival of their nations.

• peaceful relations with the newcomers.

• respect for cultural and spiritual survival as distinct nations by the preservation of traditions and institutions.

• a transition to a new lifestyle by learning different technologies within education, economics and health, as well as other benefits.

Assembly of First Nations

In 1982, the Assembly of First Nations (formerly known as the National Indian Brotherhood) was created.

• This organization is made up of the elected chiefs from First Nations communities from across the country.

• They have been advocating for the recognition of Indigenous rights in Canada. They are pushing the government to honour the numbered treaties and are working to have Indigenous perspectives be included in the mainstream narratives about Canada as a nation.

Oka Crisis (Kanesatake Resistance) (1990)

First Nations land rights were brought to the public consciousness in 1990.

• The town of Oka was proposing to expand a nine-hole golf course that was already on Mohawk land even further onto the traditional territory of the Kanesatake Mohawk people.

• The Kanesatake people never signed a treaty or agreed to allow settlers to live in their traditional territory.

• Kanesatake people blocked construction vehicles from entering their territory.

• This led to a months-long standoff with the Canadian armed forces and local police that left several people injured and one person dead.

Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples

• The end of the Oka Crisis led to the establishment of the Royal Commision on Aboriginal Peoples.

• This commission was tasked with setting a policy direction for how the government of Canada could reconcile for the injustices faced by Indigenous Peoples in Canada.

• The final report recommended that Indigenous Peoples have their rights to land and to self-determination respected by all people in Canada.

White Paper (1969)

In 1969, Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau proposed through the White Paper to make all Indigenous people equal to all other Canadians by eliminating the Indian Act, dissolving the treaties and ending any special rights guaranteed to Indigenous peoples.

Perspectives on the White Paper

• The Indian Act is very oppressive, but it also contains the rights of First Nations. The document itself recognizes that First Nations are a distinct group in society with special rights.

• They have certain rights because they were the first people here, and agreed to allow Europeans to come and live on the land with them.

• Removal of their rights and their claims to traditional lands would mean an end to their way of life and nationalist loyalties. First Nations leaders and groups strongly opposed the proposal.

---> Many saw Pierre Trudeau's desire for equality as misguided, as it ignored the history, relationship to land and sovereignty of First Nations peoples.

Citizen Plus (Red Paper) (1970)

Harold Cardinal wrote a response to the White Paper entitled Citizen Plus (aka the Red Paper) which criticized the White Paper for continuing the program of assimilation and outlined the desire for more self-determination for First Nations groups.

• This response started a new era of Indigenous activism and prevented the passing of the proposal in the White Paper.

Land Claims

• There are still hundreds of unsettled Indigenous land disputes in Canada. First Nations groups are now taking the government to court to reclaim their traditional land. These disputes stem from two main causes.

• There are two different types of claims: specific and comprehensive.

Specific (Land) Claims

Cause: The land agreements in the numbered treaties were often ignored and land was sometimes taken illegally from First Nations groups.

Effect: First Nations groups are now trying to reclaim the land that was taken from them.

Comprehensive (Land) Claims

Cause: In some parts of Canada no treaties were ever signed.

Effect: First Nations groups are now making claim to land that was taken from them without an agreement.

The Inuit

Inuit is Inuktitut for "the people" that live in the Arctic regions of the world (Canada, Greenland, Alaska, and close relatives in Russia)

• Inuit homeland is known as Inuit Nunangat, which refers to the land, water, and ice contained in the Arctic region.

• Archaeological work shows evidence of Inuit habitation in the Arctic as far back as 12,000 years ago.

• There is diversity among Inuit groups with variations in language, culture, and way of life.

• There are 8 main ethnic groups and 5 main Inuktitut dialects.

Inuit Culture

Traditionally, the Inuit were hunters and gatherers who moved seasonally from one camp to another.

• In contemporary northern communities, many types of food such as fruit, vegetables, and milk must be transported long distances = high costs and limited availability.

• Most contemporary Inuit harvest "country food" such as seal, whale, duck, caribou, fish and berries.

• The Inuit have a rich and diverse culture that includes high-skilled artistry, craftsmanship and carving.

• A popular cultural activity is vocal games known as throat singing, which is usually performed by two women.

Inuit Perspectives on Nationalism

1) Ethnic Nationalism:

Like First Nations groups many Inuit have collective national identities based on their relationship to the land and the geography in their traditional territory.

• Inuit have and continue to maintain patterns of regional and seasonal migration that are based on the availability of natural resources.

• Qaujimajatuqangit is an Inuit word that describes Inuit worldview based on:

○ working towards the common good.

○ maintaining balance and harmony.

○ respecting all living things.

○ preparing for the future.

2) Civic Nationalism (in relation to Canada):

***Many Inuit today do not feel like they are a part of Canada.

• They feel loyalty only to their own people and their relationship with the land.

• Part of the reason why many Inuit feel this way is because the government of Canada attempted to assimilate them.

• There were multiple systematic attempts to absorb the people into Canadian culture.