demography

What is the total fertility rate, what does thsi change show

The total fertility rate is the average number of children that a woman has during her fertile years. The UK’s fertility rate rose recently from 1.63 in 2001 to 1.83 in 2014, and is now at 1.7. This is still afr lwoer tan its peak in 1964 of 2.95 during the baby boom

These changes show hwo more women are remaining childless, and that women are also postponing having children due to focusing on education and careers

How has chnages in women’s position caused a declien in the birth rates

There were major changes in women’s position in the 20th century, such as more equilty, better access to education, changes in attitudes to women and more.

Harper argues that teh education of women is the most important reason for the long term fall in fertility rates. it has led to change in the mindset of women, as they now have more aspirational views of themselves. For example, in 2012, one in every 5 women aged 45 were childless, double the number 25 years earlier

How has a decline in the infant mortality rate led to a decline in birth rates

Harper argues that a fall in the infant mortality rate leads to a fall in teh birth rate, as if many infants die, parents have mroe childrent oreplace the ones that they lost, thereby increasing the birth rate, and vice versa.

In 1900, the UK IMR was 154 per 1000, wheras in 2014 the worlds highest IMR was Afghanisatn at 117.

The UK’s IMR began to fall in the 20th century for a number of reasons, such as:

Improved hosuing and better sanitation, resulting in lower rates of morbidity

Better nutrition

better education and knowledge

Imporved healthcare services

However, whilst man calim that a fall in the IMR led to a fall in the birth rates, Brass argues that the trend of samller families began in urban areasm despite the IMR first falling in rural areas

How has children becoming an economic liability impacted birth rates

Children now no longer work due to laws and changing norms, meaning taht more money is spent on them than made from them, so parents are less able to have children

How has child centeredness led to a fall in the birth rates

Parents now shift from ‘quantity’ to ‘quality’ and focus more on fewer chidlren but giving them better upbringings and livelihoods.

What are the effects of changing fertility rates on the family

Smaller families mean that women are more likely to be free to go out to work, thus creating the dual earner family. However, family size is only one factor here as better off couples may be able to have larger families abd still afford childcare allowing the to both work full time

What is the impact on teh dependency ratio of changing fertility rates

A fall in the fertility rate will imporve the dependency ratio in teh short term as there will be fewer children to take care of. However, in the fture due to an ageing population, there will be less peopel to take care on teh economically inactove population, worsening the dependency ratio.

What is the impact on public services and policies of changing fertility rates

A lower brith rate means taht fewer schools, maternity and child health services will be needed, It can also effect the cost of maternity and paternity leave and the types of hosuing needing to be built.

However, many of these are political decisions.

How did imporved nutrition lead to declining death rates according to McKeown

Imporved nutrition - Mckeown argues that imporved nutrition accounted for up to half the reduction in death rates from 1850-1970 and was very improtant for reducing the death rate from TB. better nutrition increased resitance to disease and increased survival chances.

However, Mckeown doesnt explain how death rates from diseases such as measles rose at a time of improving nutrition

How did medical improvements lead to declining death rates

Since the 1950s, improved medical knowledge, techniques and organisation helped to reduce death rates. Advances in teh introduction of anti biotics, immunisation, imrpved maternity servicess etc… as well as the creation of the NHS helped reduce death rates

How did smoking and diet lead to changes in the death rate according to Harper

Harper says that the greatest fall in death rates came from a reduction in teh number of peopel smoking However, recently there have been major rises in obesity rates.

However, despite rising obesity, deaths from obesity have been kept relaively low due to drug therapies. Harper says we are moving to an ‘Americanisation’ of health culture where obesity rates are high but so is life expectancy due to costly drug treatments

How did public health measures lead to changes in the death rate

Improvements to housing such as better ventilation and less crowded accomodation, along with improved drinking water and improved sewage dsiposal lead to improvemnst in health

How has life expectancy changed in the UK

Men born in 1900 would live until they were 50, but men born in 2013 will live until they are 90.

One reason for this change is lower infant morality rates, for example a child born today has a better chance of reaching 65 than a child born in 1900 has of reaching 1

Describe the class, gender and regional differences in life expectancy

Wealthier areas have higher life expectancy due to better healthcare, housing, and diets, while lower-income communities face higher mortality rates from diseases like heart disease and diabetes. Manual workers and less-educated individuals tend to have shorter lifespans due to poorer health choices and job conditions.

Women live around four years longer than men due to biological advantages, healthier lifestyles, and greater use of healthcare services. Men have higher rates of heart disease, risk-taking behaviours, and are less likely to seek medical help, leading to lower life expectancy.

Life expectancy is higher in the South of England, while the North and Scotland have lower averages due to economic deprivation, higher smoking and alcohol rates, and poor housing. Rural areas generally see longer lifespans than cities due to lower pollution and stress levels.

What are the effects of an ageing population on public services

older people consume a larger proportion of service, such as health and social care than others, particularly true woth those over 75 compared to 65-74

What is the effect of an ageing population on one person penioner households

The number of pensioners living alone has increased and one person pensioner households now account for about 12.5% of households.

What is the impact of an ageing population on the dependency ratio

An ageing population increases the dependency ratio, meaning fewer workers support more retirees. The UK’s old-age dependency ratio was 285 per 1,000 in 2021, projected to reach 357 per 1,000 by 2050, straining pensions, healthcare, and social care.

The state pension age will rise to 68 by the late 2040s, but financial pressure on younger workers will still grow.

What is the view of modern society and old age

In modern society, ageing is often seen as a burden, with a focus on the costs of pensions, healthcare, and social care.

From a Marxist perspective, Philipson argues that the elderly are viewed as unproductive to capitalism, leading to inadequate state support and a reliance on family, particularly women, to provide care. Negative stereotypes and unequal treatment of elderly people continue to grow as a result.

What is the view of inequalty among the old

Ageing is not experienced equally, as both class and gender impact quality of life in old age. The middle class benefit from higher salaries and greater savings, while the working class often have shorter life expectancies and fewer financial resources. Women are more likely to experience poverty in old age due to lower lifetime earnings and career breaks, resulting in lower pension levels.

What is the view of policy impacations on old age

The ageing population requires policies that address financial security, healthcare, and social care. Increasing the state pension age and encouraging private pensions aim to reduce economic strain, but inequalities in income and support persist. Policies must also recognise the unpaid care burden on family members, particularly women, and ensure fairer provisions for all elderly individuals.

Describe teh trends of immigartion into the UK

From 1900 until the Second World War the largest immigrant group into England were the Irish, mainly for economic reasons.​

There were also many European Jews who were often refugees fleeing persecution.​ Very few immigrants were nonwhite during this time.​

However, during the 1950s large numbers of black migrants arrived from the Caribbean and many Asians from the Indian subcontinent and East Africa.​

One consequence of this more ethnically diverse society has been an increase in family diversity patterns.​

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describe the trends of emigration from the UK

From teh mid 16th century to 1980, the UK was a net exporter of people to areas such as the USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, often for economic activties

What is the impact of migration on the UKs population structure

The UK's population continues to grow, partly as a result of immigration.​

Immigration lowers the average age of the population and has a positive impact on the dependency ratio.

What is superdiversity by Vertovec

Since the 90s, migration has led to what Vertovec calls ‘super diversity’. Migrants now come from a much wider range of countries. Even with a single ethnic group, individuals differ in terms of their legal status, such as citizens as spouses.

describe the fminisation of migration

The feminisation of migration refers to the growing number of women migrating independently for work, especially in domestic and care sectors. According to Hochschild (2000), global care chains involve women from poorer countries migrating to provide childcare, eldercare, and domestic services in wealthier nations, often leaving their own families behind.

Globalisation has increased demand for migrant women to carry out emotional and reproductive labour, allowing middle-class women in developed countries to work. However, many face low pay, insecurity, and exploitation in informal or unregulated work, reinforcing global gender inequalities.

What is a transnational identity

Eriksen argues that globalisation has created more divers migration pattern, with back and forth movements of peopel though networks rather than permanent settlement in one country

As a result, migrants are less likely to see themselves as belonging completely to one country. Instead, they may develop transnational identities. Modern technology also makes it possible to sustain global ties without having to travel

Describe assimilationism and multiculturalism relating to the politicisation of immigration

assimilationalism was the first state policy and apporach to immigration. It aimed to encourage immigrants to adopt the language, values and customs. However, this faces the problem of transnational migrants may be unwilling to change their identity

Multiculturalism accepts that migrants may wish to retain a sperate culture identity. however, in practicethis acceptance may be limited to more superficial aspects. Eriksne disntinguishes between shallow and deep diversity:

Shallow diversity, such as regarding chiken tika masala as Brittains national dish is acceptable to the state

Deep diversity such as arranged marriages or the veiling of women is not acceptabel to the state

How does Castles critique assimilationism

Castles critiques assimilationism for expecting migrants to fully adopt the host culture, ignoring their identities and the barriers they face, like discrimination. He supports multiculturalism, arguing that globalisation and transnationalism make full assimilation unrealistic, as migrants often maintain dual identities.

What are cohens 3 types of migrant

Cohen distinguishes between 3 different types of migrant:

citizens - full citizenship righst such as teh righ to work and vote

Deneziens - privelaged foreign nationsals welcomed by the state such as oligarchs

Helots - regarded by states and employers as ‘disposable unit of labour power’, a reserve army for labour