Psychobiology Final Exam Concepts

What is the contribution of the prefrontal cortex to emotional regulation?

The prefrontal cortex plays a crucial role in emotional regulation by integrating emotional information, modulating emotional responses, and enabling decision-making based on emotional experiences. It helps control impulses and assess the consequences of actions related to emotional states.

What are the three components of emotion?

The three components of emotion are subjective experience, physiological response, and behavioral or expressive response.

What is the James-Lange theory of emotion? What was Cannon’s critique of this model?

The James-Lange theory posits that emotions result from the perception of physiological responses to stimuli, suggesting that we feel afraid because we tremble. Cannon critiqued this model by arguing that physiological changes can occur without the corresponding emotional experience, proposing instead that emotions and arousal occur simultaneously.

What is the effect of spinal cord injury on emotional processing?

Spinal cord injury can disrupt the transmission of physiological signals to the brain, potentially impairing the ability to perceive and express emotions, as well as affecting emotional regulation and experience.

What are the symptoms of Kluver-Bucy Syndrome? What causes it?

Kluver-Bucy Syndrome is characterized by symptoms such as hyperorality, hypersexuality, and emotional blunting. It is typically caused by bilateral damage to the temporal lobes, particularly affecting the amygdala.

Damage in what area of the brain is linked to indifference syndrome, major depression, mania and pathological laughing?

Damage in the prefrontal cortex is linked to indifference syndrome, major depression, mania, and pathological laughing. This area is crucial for emotion regulation and decision-making.

What are the effects on behavior of frontal lobotomy?

Frontal lobotomy can lead to significant changes in personality, emotional regulation, and behavior, often resulting in apathy, reduced initiative, and impaired social interactions. It disrupts the brain's frontal lobe functions, which are essential for decision-making and emotional responses.

What are the three stages of the stress response according to Selye?

The three stages are alarm reaction, resistance, and exhaustion. These stages describe how the body reacts to stressors over time.

What were the endocrine changes found when paratroopers in training were assessed?

Researchers found elevated levels of cortisol and adrenaline, indicating increased stress response and physiological adaptations to extreme training conditions.

What are the endocrine effects of riding a crowded train or an exam?

These situations can trigger elevated cortisol and adrenaline levels, leading to heightened stress responses and anxiety.

How does an exam period alter your immune system?

During an exam period, stress can lead to increased cortisol levels, which may suppress immune system functioning, making individuals more susceptible to illness.

What happens when the suprachiasmatic nuclei of a mutant hamster with a shortened day/night cycle is implanted into a normal hamster?

The normal hamster adopts a similar shortened day/night cycle, demonstrating the influence of the suprachiasmatic nuclei on circadian rhythms.

What are the effects of the tau mutation on circadian rhythm?

The tau mutation leads to a shortening of the circadian period, causing affected individuals to experience a faster than normal biological clock, resulting in altered sleep-wake cycles.

What are the effects and putative causes of narcolepsy?

Narcolepsy is characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness, cataplexy, and disrupted nighttime sleep. It is thought to result from a deficiency of hypocretin-producing neurons in the hypothalamus.

How do sleep/wake patterns change over the life time? How do these patterns vary by species?

Sleep/wake patterns change significantly throughout an individual's life, with infants requiring more sleep and experiencing more REM sleep, while older adults tend to have lighter sleep and less REM sleep. These patterns can also vary greatly by species, with some animals being diurnal, others nocturnal, and some exhibiting polyphasic sleep schedules.

What is the putative cause of seasonal affective disorder?

The putative cause of seasonal affective disorder is believed to be related to changes in light exposure, which can disrupt circadian rhythms and serotonin levels, leading to mood changes.

What two neuromodulatory systems are called the brain “activator” systems?

The two neuromodulatory systems referred to as the brain "activator" systems are the noradrenergic and serotonergic systems, which play key roles in regulating arousal and attention.

What are examples of tests designed to assess implicit memory?

Examples of tests designed to assess implicit memory include word fragment completion, priming tasks, and procedural memory tasks such as mirror tracing or skill acquisition.

What is highly superior autobiographical memory? What parts of the brain are linked to this form of
memory?

Highly superior autobiographical memory (HSAM) is a condition characterized by the ability to recall vast amounts of personal information, often including specific dates and events. Research suggests that areas like the temporal lobes, particularly the hippocampus, and the frontal lobes are involved in this enhanced memory ability.

Know the regions of the brain damaged in the following people: H.M., K.C., and J.K. What do these case studies tell about memory?

The regions of the brain damaged in H.M. include the medial temporal lobes and hippocampus, leading to profound anterograde amnesia. K.C. suffered damage to the medial temporal lobe and parietal cortex, affecting his episodic memory, while J.K. had damage to the basal ganglia, impacting procedural memory. These case studies highlight the importance of specific brain regions in different types of memory.

Know the neural circuits for episodic memory? Implicit memory? Emotional memory?

Neural circuits for episodic memory primarily involve the hippocampus and adjacent medial temporal lobe structures. Implicit memory relies on the basal ganglia and cerebellum, while emotional memory is closely linked to the amygdala and related limbic structures.

What is the difference between the pine vole and the meadow vole in terms of reproductive strategies?
How is this related to brain changes?

The pine vole is monogamous, forming long-term pair bonds, while the meadow vole is polygamous, having multiple mates. This difference is related to variations in oxytocin and vasopressin receptor density in the brain, which influence social behavior and mating strategies.

What is the difference in the brains and behaviors of chickadees vs. sparrows?

Chickadees have larger brain areas related to memory and spatial navigation, as they need to remember the locations of food caches, whereas sparrows exhibit more generalized brain structures. These differences reflect their ecological needs and foraging behaviors.

What is long-term potentiation? How is it related to memory? How does repeated firing change the
post-synaptic membrane? How does it impact the pre-synaptic membrane?

Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons that results from stimulating them simultaneously. It is crucial for memory formation and synaptic plasticity, as repeated firing strengthens synaptic connections by increasing receptor sensitivity and promoting the release of neurotransmitters.

How does chronic stress impact the brain and memory?

Chronic stress leads to structural and functional changes in the brain, particularly in the hippocampus, which is involved in memory formation. It can result in reduced neurogenesis, impaired synaptic plasticity, and overall cognitive deficits.

How does damage to the frontal lobe impact attention? How does damage to the parietal lobe impact attention?

Damage to the frontal lobe can impair executive functions, leading to difficulties in sustaining attention and controlling impulses, while damage to the parietal lobe can disrupt spatial awareness and the ability to selectively attend to stimuli in the environment.

What is the Wisconsin Card Sorting task? How does frontal lobe damage alter performance on this task?

The Wisconsin Card Sorting task is a cognitive test used to assess abstract reasoning and the ability to adapt to changing rules. Frontal lobe damage typically leads to difficulties in shifting strategies, resulting in poor performance and perseveration.

What surgery was performed on split-brain patients? How did this impact thinking in these patients?

The surgery performed on split-brain patients is called a corpus callosotomy, which severs the corpus callosum, preventing communication between the two hemispheres of the brain. This can lead to unique cognitive and perceptual effects, such as difficulty in coordinating actions and conflicting responses between the hemispheres.

What are the sex differences in cognition? How are the brains different between men and women?

Sex differences in cognition often refer to variations in abilities, preferences, and brain structure between genders. Research indicates that women may excel in verbal tasks and emotional processing, while men might perform better in spatial tasks, with observable differences in brain connectivity and size.

How does handedness related to lateralization of function in the brain?

Handedness refers to the preference for using one hand over the other, which is linked to the lateralization of brain function. Typically, right-handed individuals have left hemisphere dominance for language, while left-handed individuals may exhibit more varied lateralization.

What is the difference between positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia?

Positive symptoms of schizophrenia refer to the presence of abnormal behaviors or experiences, such as hallucinations and delusions, while negative symptoms involve the absence or lack of normal emotional responses or behaviors, such as apathy and social withdrawal.

What are the risk factors for schizophrenia? Mood disorders? Alzheimer’s disease?

Risk factors for schizophrenia include genetic predisposition, environmental stressors, and prenatal exposure to infections. Mood disorders can be influenced by genetic factors, hormonal changes, and environmental stress, while Alzheimer’s disease risk factors include age, family history, and lifestyle choices.

What are the main effects of drugs used to treat schizophrenia? Mood disorders?

The main effects of drugs used to treat schizophrenia often include reduction of positive symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions, as well as some negative symptoms. For mood disorders, treatment may stabilize mood, reduce depressive symptoms, and alleviates anxiety.

What are some of the effects of schizophrenia on the brain?

Schizophrenia can lead to structural changes in the brain, including enlarged ventricles, reduced gray matter volume, and altered connectivity in networks involved in cognition and emotion regulation.

What evidence supports the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia?

The dopamine hypothesis suggests that schizophrenia is associated with overactivity of dopamine transmission in certain brain regions, supported by observations that drugs increasing dopamine levels can exacerbate symptoms, while antipsychotics that block dopamine receptors can alleviate symptoms.

What are the symptoms of depression? Bipolar disorder?

Symptoms of depression include persistent sadness, loss of interest, changes in appetite, sleep disturbances, and difficulty concentrating. In bipolar disorder, symptoms alternate between depressive episodes and manic episodes, which can involve elevated mood, increased energy, and impulsive behavior.

What are the neurochemical and neuroanatomical circuits changed in depression? ... anxiety disorders?

Depression is linked to dysregulation of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine, along with changes in brain structures like the prefrontal cortex and the amygdala. Anxiety disorders often involve altered activity in the amygdala and decreased regulation from the prefrontal cortex, contributing to increased fear and anxiety responses.

What are precipitating factors for seizures? How are drugs used to treat strokes?

Precipitating factors for seizures include triggers such as stress, lack of sleep, and flashing lights. Drugs used to treat strokes often focus on dissolving clots, such as thrombolytics, or preventing further clotting with anticoagulants.

What happens to the brain during traumatic brain injury? Stroke? Alzheimer’s disease?

Traumatic brain injury can lead to inflammation, neuronal death, and disruption of neural connections. During a stroke, brain cells die due to interrupted blood supply, resulting in loss of function in affected areas. Alzheimer’s disease is characterized by the accumulation of amyloid plaques and tau tangles, leading to progressive cognitive decline and memory loss.

What is types of drugs are used to treat anxiety disorders? What are the effects in the brain of these drugs?

Common types of drugs used to treat anxiety disorders include benzodiazepines and selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). Benzodiazepines enhance the effect of the neurotransmitter GABA, leading to a calming effect, while SSRIs increase serotonin levels to help regulate mood and anxiety.