PSYC 322 Midterm 1 review

biopsychosocial perspective

view of development as a complex interaction of biological, psychological and social processes (not as a straightforward progression through time)

• body goes through biological changes influenced by genetics + physiology

• you change psychologically

• happens in a social context — you change based on where you live, who you interact with, and resource availability

gerontologists use this interdisciplinary perspective

identity

how individuals view themselves in the biological psychological and social/cultural domains of life

4 principles of adult development and aging

1. changes are continuous over the life span

   • continuity principle

   • life span perspective

2. only survivors grow old

   • survivor principle

3. individuality matters

   • 2 types of individuality differences

     • interindividual differences

     • intra-individual differences

       • multidirectionality

4. normal aging is different from disease

   • primary aging (Loss)

   • secondary or impaired aging (Loss)

   • tertiary aging (Loss)

   • optimal aging + normal aging

CSIN

Principle 1 of 4 principles of adult aging and development

changes are continuous over the life span

continuity principle: changes that people experience in later adulthood build on experiences they had in earlier years, YOU CANNOT ISOLATE THESE EXPERIENCES

• applies to identity perception: you feel the same inside despite birthdays

• when working with older adults: they are the people that they always were, rather than old people

eg you see an older woman walking with difficulty and don’t stop to think that she might have been a marathon runner in the past; you see someone who can no longer move their fingers as quickly and don’t stop to think that they may have been a professional musician.

Principle 2 of 4 principles of adult aging and development

Only survivors grow old

Survivor principle: people who live to old age are the ones who have managed to outlive the many threats that could have caused their earlier death

survivors have managed to avoid random causes of fatality like war, being killed in an accident, natural disaster, they are MORE LIKELY TO TAKE CARE OF THEIR HEALTH

• not using drugs

• not using alcohol excessively

association with biopsychosocial principle:

• inherited good genes, good cognitive and emotional health, surrounded themselves with a good support system → these skills also contribute to skills desired by universities, meaning these individuals likely had good education as well

it is important to consider that older adults now were likely a special subset of their own agegroup

Principle 3 of 4 principles of adult aging and development

individuality matters

as people grow older, they become more different from each other — influences physical, psychological performance, relationships, work

Inter individual differences: differences BETWEEN people

intra individual differences: variations of performance within the same individual (individuals may gain intelligence in some spaces while losing it in others → THIS CONCEPT IS ALSO DEFINED AS MULTIDIRECTIONALITY

• as people grow older, there is more divergence, and differences become magnified

• people don’t start from the same point, there are already differences and these differences merely grow with time

• if age is related to performance- there is a high chance that older group will differ simply due to age

• 2 adults of same age would differ more at older age than they would’ve when they were younger

Principle 4 of 4 principles of adult aging and development

Normal aging is different from disease → growing older =/= disease

we should not dismiss disease as “simply getting older” - do not write off health issues as simply getting older

primary aging- normal changes over time that occur due to universal, progressive alterations of body systems

secondary/impaired aging- impairment due to disease rather than normal aging

tertiary aging- rapid loss of function towards the very end of life; represents the impact of disease on already compromised areas

PRIMARY SECONDARY AND TERTIARY accumulate and in the absence of accident or injury, cause an individual’s death

optimal aging- age-related changes that can improve an individual’s functioning

interindividual differences

refers to principle of individuality- DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PEOPLE

intraindividual differences

principle of individuality- refers to variations in performance within the same individual

• not all systems develop at the same rate

• some decrease, others increase

• MULTIDIRECTIONALITY

primary aging - principle 4 (normal aging is not diseased)

normal changes over time that occur due to universal, progressive alterations of body systems

secondary/impaired aging - principle 4 (normal aging is not diseased)

impairment due to disease rather than normal aging

tertiary aging - principle 4 (normal aging is not diseased)

rapid loss of function towards the very end of life; represents the impact of disease on already compromised areas

optimal aging - principle 4 (normal aging is not diseased)

age-related changes that can improve an individual’s functioning;

preventative or compensatory measures that adults take to counter effect of aging on their physical and psychological functioning

• things that slow primary and secondary aging

issues w measuring by chronological age

measured on earth movement around the sun however physical changes in universe do not directly relate to what goes on inside the body

• your body does not change significantly each time you pass a specific birthday

• social meaning to age means more than the intrinsic meaning

• maturity eg in apples is more easy to measure and quantify (in reference to the biopsychosocial process than people across cultures)

• if we’re measuring by marriage, what if there is a lag with the economy and couples must wait to get married?

young-old subgroup

65-74

old-old

75-84

oldest-old

85+

centenarians

those who have lived 100 years+

110+ - supercentenarians

to counter chronologic age there were new concepts

1. functional age

2. biological age

3. psychological age

4. social age

biological age

• heart health

• lung functioning

• muscle and bone strength

• celular aging

psychological age

• reaction time

• memory

• learning ability

• intelligence

social age

• work roles

• family status

• position in community

functional age

viewing their characteristics and abilities, how they perform → has to be calculated, encapsulates biological age, psychological age, social age

biological age

age of an individual’s bodily systems → regards their ability to pump blood, get oxygen to their lungs, blood pressure

• we can search for ways to manage and strengthen bone marrow, muscle strength

• we can examine people through blood pressure age

psychological age

performance an individual achieves on measures of quality like reaction time, memory, learning, ability, intelligence

(all are known to change with age), compared to other adults, then scaled

social age

calculated by where individuals are compared to the typical ages expected for the positions they hold in life

• ex. age getting into family roles

• grandparents have older social age than parent, even though it is possible for them to be chronologically younger than the parent

parents can be in their late 20s and a grandparent

personal aging

changes in our body and body structures that reflect the passing of time

• how people percieve primary, secondary and tertiary aging

social aging

the effects of a person’s exposure to a changing environment → 3 forms of social influences

1. normative age graded influences

2. normative history graded influences

3. non-normative influences

aging is a blend of what

social and personal aging

normative age graded influences (social aging)

age norms that traditionally dictate and direct where individuals believe they should be according to age; it is due to society’s expectations

eg. age for marriage, age for graduation/finishing school,

linked to biological aging process: when individuals are expected to fulfill specific tasks

normative history graded influences (social aging)

large scaled events that occur for everyone withina certain culture or geopolitical unit

eg. world war, economic trends, cultural changes and attitudes, ice storm

non-normative influences

random events that occur throughout life with no regular predictability → divorce, death of a relative, fire, fired from a job

key social factors in aging

• sex and gender - individuals assume roles

• ethnicity - ancestral origin, homeland, identity, culture

• socioeconomic status - position in educational and occupational rank

• religion

baby boom generation

babies born in the post WWII years 1946-1964

silent → greatest (fought in war), x, y, z

what does generation of older population statistically look like now (in terms of population)

more older people than ever, ¼ will be 65+ in around a decade, more and more centenarians

life expectancy

average number of years of life remaining for people born in a similar period of time

calculated with death rates for particular group + project to see how long it will take the entire group to die out completely

OVERALL: men are expected to live shorter than women

life span

maximum age for a given species; life span of humans has not changed but more people are living to older ages, leading to a life expectancy increase

health adjusted life expectancy

total numbers of years a person could expect to live in good health if current mortality and morbidity rates persist

compression of morbidity

an ideal situation in where the illness that burdens a society is compressed and mostly occurs closer to their time of death

• sick for less time

what is happening around the world in terms of aging

there is a disproportional rate of aging from region to region; there is estimated to be 1.57 billion ppl over the age of 65 in 2050, yet right now, 55% of these individuals reside in asia, and only 7% in Africa

• when we grow old, we will likely have more friends than the current population

• men will live longer

what is gerontology

the scientific study of aging from maturity through old age

• a newer, multidisciplinary field of study

what is the expected life expectancy difference between men and women

men tend to have a lower life expectancy than women

what is morbidity

illness and disease

mortality

death

life span perspective (continuity) - 4 principles of life

human development is divided to

1. early phase (childhood and adolescence)

2. later phase (young adulthood, middle age, old)

adulthood is influenced by early phase

consider:

• multi-directionality (some things grow some things decline)

• plasticity (capacity is not predetermined)

• historical and cultural context

• multiple causation (development is impacted)

Why are differences amplified in terms of individuality in the 4 principles of aging?

1. personality differences

2. physical function

3. life experiences

4. opportunities

pplo

what is normal aging

it is disease free development during adult aging that occurs for EVERYONE

what is secondary aging

development changes related to life style, disease, and other environmentally INDUCED changes

• cancer, smoking, alzheimers

tertiary aging

rapid losses that occur shortly before death

• the terminal drop/mortality aging

what is chronological age

percieved age

what is biological age

function of vital organs, frailness of body parts

what is psychological age

the functional level of psychological abilities to adapt to environmental demands

COGNITION, PERSONALITY, EMOTIONS

what is sociocultural age

related to work and family roles; IN RELATION TO SOCIETY AND OTHERS

3 theories of aging

1. biological theories

   • programmed aging theories

   • metabolic theories

   • random error theories

2. psychological theories

   • erikson’s psychosocial theory

   • identity process theory

   • selective compensation + optimization model

   • ageism

3. sociocultural theories

genes

sections of dna that contain hereditary info

chromosomes contain what

dna that carries genetic info

we have how many chromosomes

46, 23 pairs

What is a PROGRAMMED AGING THEORY - Theory of Age (biological)

• aging and death are encoded in our genes

• genetic timing= decline in our physiological function

evidence: species have specific life spans, cell senescence

what is cell senescence

the irreversible arrest of cell proliferation (growth or division); RESULT OF TELOMERE SHORTENING after repeated divisions over time

• time and repeated cell division can lead to damage and mutation of genes

• cells eventually stop dividing as much but also doesn’t die off

• REDUCES RISK FOR CANCER

  eg. cancer= uncontrolled growth

HAYFLICK LIMIT: fetal cells can only divide 50~ times

(programmed aging theory)

what does cell senescence lead to in the programmed aging theory

• thicker artery walls

• skin changes

• arthritis

• degeneration

• changes in cardiovascular health

• neurodegeneration (dementia risk + alzheimer’s risk)

telomerase

enzyme that can lengthen telomeres, slowing or stopping the cellular aging process

• as you get older the telomerase doesnt work as well

metabolic theory of aging (biological)

• organisms have a finite amount of energy to expend/ lifetime

• an organism’s metabolism is related to its longevity

evidence: caloric restriction studies in nonhumans and humans

• after 6 months on CR in non-obese adults :

  • lower levels of fasting insulin

  • lower core body temperature (metabolism)

  • less DNA fragmentation

• ALL BIOMARKERS OF LONGEVITY

cr: decreased risks of morbidity

primates: cr= decrease in grey matter, no cognitive impact

young mice= cr = negative impact on spatial learning, negative impact on hippocampal neurogenesis

Identity Process theory (psychological theory of aging)

• your identity continues to dynamically change in adulthood

• some thresholds matter more than others

• identity balance leads to self satisfaction

selective optimization with compensation model (psychological theory of aging)

as we age, we gain less and lose more

• adults try to preserve and maximize activies of greatest importance, less maintanence of those of lesser importance

• WE MAKE CONSCIOUS DECISIONS ON how to spend time and effort with declining cog and physical resources

• WE OPTIMIZE WHAT WE HAVE as we grow and our functions decline to make the most of our abilities

selection → optimization (of resources) → compensation (using new processes to maintain level of functioning)

ageism - a psychological theory of aging

a set of beliefs, attitudes, and social institutions that cast way groups of people based on their chronological age

• often associates old age with disease

how many generations of sociocultural theories are there

3 !

1. first gen (oldest)

   • disengagement theory

   • activity theory

2. second gen

   • continuity theory

   • life course perspective

   • bronfenbrenner’s ecological perspective

3. third gen

   • large focus on social structures

Disengagement theory - First Generation sociocultural theory of age

adjustment to old age is accomplished through voluntary withdrawal from social roles and activites

• mutual belief that withdrawal is normal, better, universal, and inevitable

criticisms of disengagement theory - First Generation sociocultural theory of aging

• engagement is not always voluntary

• research was focused on individual, not society

• unfalsifiable

• justifies ageism

• ignores thoughts and feelings of individual

• “disengagement” isnt specific enough

Activity theory - First Generation sociocultural theory of aging

aging brings decreases in life satisfaction; social & psychological needs still need to be met; new roles, friends, activities lead to greater life satisfaction

• social and productive activities were related to greater happiness, function, and reduced mortality

• solitary activities were related only to higher levels of happiness

criticism for activity theory - First Generation sociocultural theory of aging

• roles and activities mean different things for each person

• assumes psychological and social needs remain constant through adulthood

• presumes individuals have high degree of control over social situation

• how is activity measured

continuity theory - Second Generation sociocultural theory of aging

people age and try to preserve internal and external ties as best as possible

• emphasis on normal aging

• keeping life a perfect mix of unpredictable and stagnant is OPTIMAL

criticism for continuity theory - Second Generation sociocultural theory of aging

• normal aging ignores impact of chronic illness

• theory ignores impact of social structures on aging

life course perspective - Second Generation sociocultural theory of aging

development happens on pathways of age-defined, socially marked- sequences between life events and social roles

• age

• historical time

• social time (order you’re doing things)

1. life is shaped by historical + geographical placement

2. impact of transition depends on when it occurs

3. linked lives/ lives are interdependent

4. individuals control life course WITHIN constraints provided by history and social circumstance

bronfenbrenner’s ecological perspective - Second Generation sociocultural theory of aging

a child's development is a product of both their biology and a series of systems that surround the child

• emphasizes the importance of the space/environment that a child grows and resides in in relation to them

experimental study needs

iv (manipulation), dv, random assignment

pros + cons of experimental designs

• can make a causal claim (iv caused dv)

• can examine interactions with other factors like age (can be factorial)

cannot examine whether aging causes changes (this would be another kind of study) bec you cant randomly assign ages!!!!

quasi experimental designs

subjects are selected based on pre-existing values of independent variable NOT RANDOMLY SELECTED!!!

• experimenter assigns values of IV to subjects

eg. pollution exposure + seniors

pros and cons of quasi experiments

• allows researchers to examine effect of treatment that is likely already an occurance in one’s life hence MORE ETHICAL (eg. you cant throw people in pollution)

cons: less internal validity + no causation

correlational designs

type of non-experimental

measures association between 2 or more different variables in a sample + how strongly associations are

bivariate correlation ( r )

indexes degree and strength of relationship between 2 continuous variables

(correlation variables cannot be grouped)

pros and cons of bivariate correlation ( r )

• describes relationship between two variables

CONS: DOESNT INFER CAUSATION, only useful for linear relationships, possible time of measurement, cohort effects the way descriptive research designs do

types of descriptive research designs

• cross sectional

• longitudinal

• sequential

what can descriptive research design effects

• age effects : differences caused by underlying processes that occur with things like aging

• cohort effects : differences caused by experiences and circumstances unique to a generation or a person - OFTEN NORMATIVE + history graded

• time of measurement effects: differences stemming from sociocultural, environmental, historical etc. at the time of data collection - often cohort effects in the making

effects are often confounded- results are not always relationship established.

cross sectional design - descriptive research design

snapshot into time

3 dif age groups and their results at the time being eg

pros + cons of cross sectional design

+ age differences are examined in variable of interest, fast + cheap, addresses time of measurement effects

- might not be representative, doesn’t examine change in age, cohort effects, 3 extreme age groups can be problematic

longitudinal design - descriptive research design

follow same group of people of some period of time (like a cross sectional experiment but on multiple different occasions every few years

pros and cons of longitudinal designs

+ can assess changes as individuals age, outcomes are watched to examine any risk or possible protective factors

- age and time confounded, might not be generalizable, attrition (people can drop out), time consuming, expensive, measures may change, new studies may show up, researchers may lose interest

sequential research design

cross-sectional study conducted at 2 or more times of measurement + 2 or more longitudinal designs that represent 2 or more cohorts

• cross sectional comparisons

• cohort comparisons

• controlling for cohort and time of measurement (same cohort in 1930 and 1960 eg)

• timepoint cohorts

pros + cons of sequential designs

+ can examine cohort effects, different comparisons can be made, confounds can be examined

-selective attrition (some people are more likely than others to be selected), practice effects during study, measures of tech may change, researchers may change, knowledge may change, study may not get to be completed

common changes in vision - primary aging

• less light passing through (more light is needed to do tasks) - iris loses strength, pupil is smaller

• sensitivity to glare

• light and dark adaptation is worse

• loss in peripheral vision (about 1 degree a yr, 20-30 once we get old)

• presbyopia -lens’ ability to adjust and focus declines (stiffening); time needed to adjust from near to far is worse

changes to vision - secondary aging

• cataracts

• glaucoma -loss of vision

• macular degeneration - loss of central vision

cataracts disease - secondary aging

symptoms- seeing through a frosted window, difficult to see at night, read, see expressions, sensitivity, halo around light, double vision

causes- aging, injury changes tissue in eye lens, proteins and fibres break down

after treatment can be returned to normal- yes (lens is removed or artificial lens is put in)

how can one reduce risk of condition- regular eye exams, no smoking, managing health, health diet, sunglasses, less alcohol

glaucoma - secondary aging

symptoms- may vary a bit but severe headache and severe eyepain, blurred vision, redness, halos

causes- optic nerve is damaged, blind spots develop as nerve damage = increased pressure

after treatment can be returned to normal- no, but treatment and checkups can slow or prevent vision loss esp if in early stages

how can one reduce risk of condition- eye drops,know family history, eye exams, eye protection

macular degeneration - secondary aging

symptoms- visual distortions (straight becomes bent), reduced central vision, brighter light needed for work, hard to adapt to low light, blurriness of printed words, hard recognizing faces, blind spots in central vision

causes- unknown? possibly genes and environmental factors like smoking, obesity, diet

after treatment can be returned to normal- no, but if diagnosed early + vitamin supplements, eating healthy, not smoking

how can one reduce risk of condition- manage medical conditions, don’t smoke, maintain good weight and exercise, lots of fruits and veggies, eat fish and omega 3

sarcopenia is what?

process of primary aging

• age related loss to muscle tissue and strength

• there is a greater loss of fast twitch fibres (jump, strength)

  while slow twitch (endurance) → older individuals can still run

multifactoral cause - testosterone dropes, hormonal drops (menopause)

FROM DISUSE → when you use it less, you lose it faster

chronic disease +nutritional deficiencies

how can sarcopenia be slowed

strength training and lifting weights

• this decreases risk of falls and risk of physical disability

bidirectionali relationship is also established: weaker muscles <=> disability

osteoarthritis

condition in which cartilage that cushions the ends of bones in your joints gradually deteriorate

• pain and swelling

• occurs in foot knees hands hip and spine

  • can flatten, swell

NOT PRIMARY / not simply with age

• risks:
  age, sex, injury( in youth can lead to more consequences in the future), genetics, obesity

common symptoms of osteoarthritis

(not primary)

• pain

• tenderness

• stiffness

• swelling

• loss of flexibility

• grating sensations ( bones on bones)

• extra bits of bones that feel like hard lumps around the site

how does osteoarthitis affect one’s life?

those with osteoarthitis are 6 times more likely to report mobility problems outside

• activities of daily living are more limited to those with osteoarthitis

are there any ways to treat osteoarthitis?

no, but it is important to strengthen the muscles that support sore joints and reducing weight

• taking Tylenol, ibuprofen, injections that can slightly reduce swelling

• physical therapy? +occupational therapy (bench installment)

ESP HIP AND KNEES!