Global Perspectives Practice

what characteristics the global spread of democracy over time?

uneven expansion marked by waves and reverse waves, with overall growth since 1800 but periodic declines

what datasets track global democracy trends?

Polity, V-Dem Polyarchy, BMR

Huntington’s First Wave of democratization?

democratization in Europe and British settler colonies through suffrage expansion and parliamentary institutions from 1848-1922

First Reverse Wave

the rise of fascism and authoritarian regimes from 1922-1945

Second Wave of democratization

post-WWII democratization and decolonization from 1945-1955

Second Reverse Wave

Cold War authoritarianism and post-colonial regimes from 1955-1974w

Third Wave of democratization

global expansion beginning in Portugal and Spain and spreading to Latin America, Eastern Europe, and sub-Saharan Africa from 1974 to present

why is the Third Wave significant?

it’s the largest and most geographically widespread wave, increasing democracies from ~37 to ~100

which regions democratized early in the Third Wave?

South Europe and Latin America from the 1970s to 1980s

how did the fall of communism affect democratization?

led to democratic transitions in Eastern Europe and former Soviet republics

what was the role of sub-Saharan Africa in the Third Wave?

experienced many transitions in the early 1990s

the Color Revolutions

democratic movements in the early 2000s (2000-200), often following fraudulent elections

what did the Arab Spring represent?

a wave of mass protests beginning in 2011 aimed at democratization, with mixed outcomes

what has happened to democracy since 2005?

stagnation and erosion, followed by partial recovery after 2013 and ongoing backsliding

how many countries were classified as free in 2024?

83

how many countries were classified as partly free in 2024?

56

how many countries were classified as not free in 2024?

56

what paradox defines democracy today?

democracy is a near-universal ideal but not universally practiced

who argued that liberal democracy marked the “end of history”?

Francis Fukuyama

what did Fukuyama mean by the “end of history”?

liberal democracy had become the only legitimate form of government

what challenges Fukuyama’s thesis?

uneven democratic success and the resilience of authoritarian models like China and Russia

which groups are generally pro-democratic?

students, intellectuals, unions, working class, middle class

which groups are ambivalent or contingent democrats?

business groups, democratic foreign allies, the poor, and the military

which groups are generally anti-democratic?

landed elites, regime coalitions, autocratic foreign allies

transition from above

• also called transformation

• when a segment of the authoritarian elite chooses democracy

examples of transition from above

Spain + Brazil

transition from below

• also called replacement

• mass mobilization or opposition forces push out authoritarian rulers

examples of transition from below

Romania, the Philippines, Tunisia

bargain or transplacement transition

join action and negotiation between regime and opposition

examples of bargain transitions

Poland + South Africa

how many transitions from above occurred between 1974-1990?

16 cases

how many transitions from below occurred between 1974-1990?

6 cases

how many bargain transitions occurred between 1974-1990?

11 cases

how important was foreign intervention in democratization from 1974-1990?

rare, only 2 cases → Grenada, Panama

what triggers most democratic transitions?

a disruptive event that weakens regime power

how many democratic transitions occurred between 1800-2014?

139

violent shock transition

democratization following coups, civil wars, war defeat, or hegemony withdrawal

what percentage of transitions followed violent shocks?

about 100 of 139 cases

electoral continuity

when the ruling party liberalizes and then wins democratic elections

autogolpe or self-coup

an elected leader dismantles democratic institutions

examples of autogolpes

Hitler, Fujimori (Peru 1992), Napoleon III

what are other types of democratic breakdown?

military coups, popular revolutions (rare), foreign intervention

veto coup

military intervenes to block popular mobilization and establishes permanent ruleg

guardian coup

temporary military intervention to restore order during civilian crisis

breakthrough (junior officer) coup

lower-ranking officers overthrow leadership in a revolutionary movement

modernization theory

economic development leads to democracy

Who is associated with modernization theory?

Seymour Martin Lipset

how does development promote democracy according to Lipset?

through industrialization, education, urbanization, and a stronger middle class

what is Huntington’s critique of modernization theory?

development without political institutions increases instability w

what does Prezeworski argue about democracy and development?

development stabilizes democracy but doesn’t cause democratization

what do Acemoglu and Robinson argue?

institutions and development mutually reinforce democracy

why does economic equality support democracy?

it strengthens lower and middle classes and reduces elite fear or redistribution

why is resource wealth bad for democracy?

it funds repression, reduces accountability, and limits modernization

rentier effect

governments rely on resource rents instead of taxation, reducing accountability

how do international incentives affect resource-rich autocracies?

they may favor authoritarian stability to maintain access to resources

what are top-down international influences on democracy?

incentives, coercion, democracy promotion, competition, linkage

what are bottom-up international influences on democracy?

norms, learning, diffusion, political culture, colonial legacies

relationship between democracy and economic growth

small average effect, but democracies avoid the worst crises

how does democracy affect human development?

improves education, health, happiness, reduces poverty

democratic peace theory

democracies don’t fight wars with each other

how do democracies perform in wars?

they are more likely to win