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Polarity

As carbon bonds with atoms of increasing electronegativity, polarity increases.

Alkane

contains single bonds only.

Alkene

An alkene contains a double bond.

Alkyne

An alkyne contains a triple bond.

Structural Isomers

Structural isomers are compounds with the same formula but different structure.

Branching

Increasing branching in hydrocarbons decreases boiling point (BP).

Complete Combustion

Complete combustion produces CO₂ and H₂O.

Hydrogenation

Hydrogenation adds H to remove double bonds.

1-butyne

1-butyne contains a triple bond.

Trans Isomer

Trans isomer means opposite sides.

Alcohol

An alcohol contains an –OH functional group.

Ether

An ether is defined by the structure R–O–R.

Thiol

A thiol contains sulfur instead of oxygen.

Weak Acid

A weak acid is exemplified by phenol.

Dehydration of Alcohol

Dehydration of alcohol gives an alkene.

Secondary Alcohol Oxidation

Secondary alcohol oxidation gives a ketone.

Tertiary Alcohol Oxidation

Tertiary alcohol oxidation does not occur.

Ether Naming

Ether naming involves the format alkyl + alkyl ether.

Oxidation

Oxidation refers to the loss of H or gain of O.

Reduction

Reduction refers to the gain of H.

Carbonyl Group

A carbonyl group is represented as C=O.

Aldehyde

An aldehyde features an end carbonyl.

Ketone

A ketone has a middle carbonyl.

Oxygen Lone Pairs

Oxygen has 2 lone pairs.

Ketone Intermolecular Force

Dipole-dipole interactions are prominent in ketones.

Smaller Ketone

Smaller ketones have increased solubility.

Acetal

An acetal forms from an aldehyde and alcohol.

Hemiacetal

A hemiacetal results from an internal reaction.

Aldehyde Naming

Aldehyde naming uses the suffix –al.

Ketone Naming

Ketone naming uses the suffix –one.

Monosaccharides

Monosaccharides cannot be hydrolyzed.

Aldose

An aldose contains an aldehyde group.

Ketose

A ketose contains a ketone group.

Chiral Carbon

A chiral carbon must have four different groups.

Enantiomers

Enantiomers are mirror images of each other.

Glycosidic Bonds

Glycosidic bonds are ether-like bonds.

Fructose

Fructose is a monosaccharide.

D-Glucose

D-glucose is the most common in nature.

α vs β Glucose

α vs β glucose differ by OH orientation.

Ring Formation in Sugars

Ring formation in sugars occurs by an internal reaction of functional groups.

Butanoic Acid

Butanoic acid is also called butyric acid.

Carboxylic Acids Formation

Carboxylic acids form from primary alcohols by oxidation.

Carboxylic Acids Bonding

Carboxylic acids exhibit hydrogen bonding.

Carboxylic Acid Strength

Compared to strong acids, carboxylic acids are weaker.

Ester Formation

Ester formation involves the reaction of acid and alcohol.

Neutralization Products

Neutralization produces salt and water.

Saponification

Saponification refers to the base hydrolysis of fat.

Solubility and Chain Length

Increasing chain length decreases solubility.

Functional Group

A functional group can be –COOH.

Ester Smell

Esters typically smell fruity.

Triacylglycerol

A triacylglycerol is a fat composed of glycerol and three fatty acids.

Steroids

Steroids consist of four fused rings.

Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Unsaturated fatty acids are bent due to cis double bonds.

Saturated Fats

Saturated fats are solid at room temperature.

Polyunsaturated

Polyunsaturated means containing multiple double bonds.

Saponification Products

Saponification produces soap and glycerol.

Water-soluble Lipids

The most water-soluble lipid is a phospholipid.

Cell Membrane Structure

Cell membrane structure has heads outward and tails inward.

Cholesterol

Cholesterol is classified as a lipid.

Lipids Properties

Lipids are generally nonpolar.

Amines

Amines are classified as bases.

Primary Amine

A primary amine has one carbon attached to nitrogen.

Secondary Amine

A secondary amine has two carbons attached to nitrogen.

Tertiary Amine

A tertiary amine consists of three carbons attached to nitrogen.

Amine Reactions

Amine and acid yield ammonium salt.

Amides Formation

Amides are formed from acid and amine.

Amides Hydrolysis

Amide hydrolysis results in acid and amine.

Amines Boiling Point

Amines have higher boiling points due to hydrogen bonding.

Alkaloids

Alkaloids contain an amine group.

Amine Drugs

Amine drugs are often ammonium salts.

Amino Acids

Amino acids differ by their R group.

Zwitterion

A zwitterion has both positive and negative charges.

Peptide Bond

A peptide bond forms between amino and carboxyl groups.

Primary Structure

Primary structure refers to the sequence of amino acids.

Secondary Structure

Secondary structure includes α-helix and β-sheet.

Tertiary Structure

Tertiary structure refers to the 3D folding of polypeptides.

Quaternary Structure

Quaternary structure involves multiple chains together.

Hemoglobin Structure

Hemoglobin is an example of quaternary structure.

Hydrophobic Interactions

Hydrophobic interactions stabilize tertiary and quaternary structures.

Denaturation Effects

Denaturation affects secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.

Enzymes

Enzymes catalyze reactions without being consumed.

Activation Energy

Enzymes lower activation energy to speed up reactions.

Induced Fit

Induced fit describes how enzymes change shape upon substrate binding.

Competitive Inhibitor

A competitive inhibitor binds to the active site.

Noncompetitive Inhibitor

A noncompetitive inhibitor binds to a site different from the active site.

Cofactors

Cofactors are metal ions that assist enzyme function.

Enzyme Suffix

Common suffix for enzymes is –ase.

Low Temperature Effects

Low temperatures slow down enzyme reactions.

Enzyme Effects

Enzymes affect the rate of reactions but not equilibrium.

Isomerase Function

Isomerase enzymes rearrange molecular structure.

Nucleotide Components

A nucleotide contains a base, sugar, and phosphate.

RNA Nucleotide

RNA contains uracil instead of thymine.

DNA Replication

DNA replication uses complementary base pairing.

DNA Strands Orientation

DNA strands are antiparallel.

Transcription

Transcription is the process of synthesizing RNA from DNA.

Translation

Translation is the process of synthesizing protein from RNA.

Codons

Codons code for amino acids during protein synthesis.

Start Codon

The start codon is AUG.

Deletion Mutation

A deletion mutation involves the removal of a base.

Retrovirus

A retrovirus is classified as an RNA virus.