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Politics
The activity where people create, keep, and change rules that affect everyone.
Legislative
The branch of government that makes laws.
Executive
The branch of government that implements laws.
Judiciary
The branch of government that interprets laws.
Independent variable
A factor that influences the dependent variable but is not affected by it.
Dependent variable
The outcome or effect being studied, which depends on changes in independent variables.
Idiographic approach
An approach that focuses on a single case in great detail.
Nomothetic approach
An approach that looks at general patterns across multiple cases.
Inductive research
A strategy that starts with observations and builds a theory.
Deductive research
A strategy that starts with a theory and tests it using data.
Qualitative data
Data represented in words, images, or descriptions, often used to understand experiences or meanings.
Quantitative data
Data represented in numbers, used to measure variables in large-scale studies.
Liberal democracy
A political system characterized by regular and competitive elections, universal suffrage, and a vigorous civil society.
Totalitarianism
A political system with six key features: official ideology, one-party state, terroristic policing, control of mass communication, control of armed forces, and state control of the economy.
Authoritarianism
A political system where authority is imposed without the consent of the people.
Negative freedom
Freedom from external interference, such as the right to privacy and free speech.
Positive freedom
The ability to take control of one’s life and participate in society.
Classical democracy
A direct form of democracy where citizens make decisions themselves rather than through representatives.
Protective democracy
A system designed to protect citizens from government overreach by ensuring basic rights and separation of powers.
Developmental democracy
A system emphasizing participation, education, and personal development to improve society.
Communal groups
Groups that people belong to automatically, such as families or ethnic groups.
Institutional groups
Groups connected to formal organizations, like the military or government administration.
Associational groups
Organized associations formed intentionally for specific purposes, such as lobbying organizations or movements.
Interest group
An organization that seeks to influence politics without holding office.
Political party
An organization that aims to win elections and govern.
Sectional interest groups
Groups that represent the interests of specific communities, such as trade unions.
Promotional interest groups
Groups that advocate for an idea or cause, such as environmental movements.
Hybrid interest groups
Groups that combine aspects of both sectional and promotional groups.
Pluralist democracy
A political system where power is widely distributed among various groups.
Elite theory
The idea that a minority or elite group holds power in society.
Normative elite theory
The belief that power should belong to a wise and enlightened minority.
Classical elite theory
The belief that elite rule is an unchangeable fact of society.
Modern elite theory
A critical approach questioning why elites rule and whether their legitimacy is justified.
Neo-corporatism
A system where governments collaborate with organizations like trade unions and employers' associations.
Marxist view of political power
The belief that political power reflects economic power, with the ruling class controlling both.
Idealist view of the state
The state is seen as a moral institution that works for the good of society.
Functionalist view of the state
The state exists to maintain order and stability in society.
Organizational view of the state
The state is viewed as a collection of institutions.
Classical liberalism
An ideology favoring minimal government interference.
Modern liberalism
An ideology supporting a larger government role in solving social issues.
Socialism
An ideology that values cooperation and aims to reduce economic inequality.
Early forms of socialism
Movements such as Utopian and revolutionary socialism like Marxism.
Modern socialism
A reformed approach that seeks to improve capitalism.
Types of political parties
Catch-all, representative, integrative, constitutional, and revolutionary parties.
Catch-all parties
Parties that seek support from as many people as possible.
Representative parties
Parties focused on giving people what they want.
Integrative parties
Parties that try to shape public opinion by promoting specific ideas.
Constitutional parties
Parties that work within the political system for change.
Revolutionary parties
Parties seeking to completely change the system, often through revolution.
Dominant-party system
A system where one party consistently dominates elections.
Civic engagement
Participation in political and community activities.
Free-rider problem
When individuals benefit from collective efforts without contributing.
Models of representation
Trusteeship, delegation, mandate, and resemblance models.
Trusteeship model of representation
Elected leaders make decisions based on their own judgment.
Delegation model of representation
Elected leaders act as direct representatives of voters.
Mandate model of representation
Winning parties claim the right to implement promised policies.
Resemblance model of representation
Leaders reflect the characteristics of the population they represent.
Models of voting behavior
Party-identification, sociological, rational-choice, and dominant-ideology models.
Party-identification model
The idea that people vote based on loyalty to a political party.
Sociological model
Social factors like class, religion, and ethnicity influence how people vote.
Rational-choice model
Voters make decisions based on self-interest and policy benefits.
Political culture
Shared beliefs, values, and attitudes about politics and government.
Types of civic culture
Participant culture, subject culture, and parochial culture.
Social capital
Networks of trust and cooperation that help society function.
Media as a public watchdog
It monitors powerful figures and exposes corruption.
Social movements
Groups of people working together to achieve a common goal.
Political culture
The shared beliefs, values, and attitudes about politics.
Types of culture
Political culture, civic culture, and social capital.
Civic culture
A political culture that supports democracy and balances participation and trust.
Participant culture
A culture where people actively involve themselves in politics.
Subject culture
A culture where people feel they have little influence on decisions.
Parochial culture
A culture focused mostly on local issues.
Social capital
Networks that help society function.
Concerns about media in democracy
Media bias, misleading representation, and lack of accountability.
Media influence on governance
It affects leadership, encourages celebrity politics, and shapes public perception.
Presidentialization in politics
Leaders act like presidents, focusing on media image.
New media
Digital platforms providing alternatives to traditional media.
Effects of new media
Changes in campaigns, access to information, and support for social movements.
Social movements
Groups working together to achieve a goal.
Types of action in social movements
Mass action, collective behavior, and collective action.
Mass action
Individual acts that create a large social effect.
Collective behavior
People acting in the same way due to shared influence.
Collective action
A coordinated effort toward a common goal.
Stages of social movements
Structural conduciveness, strain, beliefs, precipitating factors, mobilization, failure of control.
Structural conduciveness
Conditions allowing a social movement to begin.
Structural strain
A situation causing dissatisfaction.
Generalized beliefs in social movements
Shared ideas about responsibility and solutions to problems.
Precipitating factors in social movements
Specific events triggering mass action.
Mobilization for action
The stage of organizing participation in the movement.
Failure of social control
When authorities fail to stop a movement, leading to stronger support.
New social movements
Movements focusing on issues beyond economic interests.
Differences in new and traditional movements
New movements emphasize quality-of-life improvements.
Examples of new social movements
Environmental, feminist, LGBTQ+ rights, and animal welfare campaigns.
Supporters of new social movements
Typically include the new middle class.
Strategies of new social movements
Online activism, peaceful protests, and awareness campaigns.
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