Maturation
rate of progress towards an adult state
maturation is genetically controlled
Growth
Quantitative increases in size or magnitude (natural changes not training changes)
Occurs over time
Conception → late adolescence (early 20s)
same general pattern
different individual rate
Development
Change in level of functioning
Growth, maturation, & experience contribute
Physical Development
early vs later maturer
early have temporary advantage
males & late maturers are taller
girls mature faster
boys & girls similar until girls hit maturation (age 9)
What are the principles of growth?
quantitative increase in size or magnitude
occurs over time
conception to late adolescence (early 20s)
What are the two measures of maturation?
Maturational Age
Chronological Age
What are the advantages of early maturers?
better coordination & ability to adapt
What are the growth patterns?
increase in length, then breadth, then circumference, then density
What are the challenges of the different measures of body composition?
BMI
proportion of height & weight
muscle weighs more than fat
designed for general group not individual
Skin Folds
not accurate if measurer isn’t trained properly
Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA)
impulse runs through body
runs differently through fat & muscle
easy & accurate
What are the three means of measuring body composition?
BMI
Skin Fold
BIA (bioelectrical impedance analysis)
What are the three somatotypes?
Ectomorph
tall, lean, distributed weight
Endomorph
round, short, concentrated weight
Mesomorph
athletic, upside-down dorito
What are the concerns with fitness testing?
MVPA vs Fitness objectives
early on only recognized top 10% of individuals
Are we training them?
never worked on improving fitness testing components
Historically only honor athletically gifted
Specialization
don’t let kids specialize at early age
greater expertise
more active
less injury
impossible to predict what kid will excel
What are the stages of cognitive development?
Schema
Assimilation
Accommodation
What are the two categories of skill classification?
Unidimensional
Gentile’s Taxonomy
Unidimensional
Gross vs Fine Motor Skill
Discrete vs Serial vs Continuous
Open vs Closed
Gentile’s Taxonomy
Two Dimensions
Regulatory Conditions (environment)
Stationary or In-Motion
Inter-Trial Variability
Function of the Action
Object Manipulation
Body Transport
What are the stages of information processing (movement preparation)?
Input
Stimulus Identification
Response Selection
Response Programming
Output
What are the factors that impact reaction time? (movement preparation)?
Number of Response Choices
Levels of Uncertainty
Anticipation
Foreperiod Consistency
Psychological Refractory Period
Arousal & Performance
optimal arousal = peak performance
What impact does arousal have on someone’s perceptual field?
broad-external
narrow-external
broad-internal
narrow-internal
What is learning?
relatively permanent change in behavior
result of practice
persists over time & inferred from practice
Fitts & Posner’s 3 Stage Model
Cognitive Stage
development of basic involvement pattern
self-talk
attention demanding
errors
Associative Stage
refinement of movement pattern
fewer errors
better at detecting errors
Autonomous Stage
performance of movement virtually automatic
consistent
error detection & correction
Gentile’s Two Stage Model
Getting Idea of Movement
learners’ goals
understand movement requirements
Fixation(closed)/Diversification(open)
refine the skill
How do you assess learning?
outcome measures
time
frequency
distance
accuracy
consistency
What are the types of transfer?
positive
negative
zero
How do you foster positive transfer?
determine cost-benefit tradeoff
How do you know if learning has occured?
error detection & correction
self-confidence
movement pattern
attention
What will you see in the performance if learning has occured?
increase in performance over time
What are the different types of practice design?
blocked vs random
constant vs variable
measured vs distributed
Blocked Practice
focus on skill
practices skill until done, then moves onto next skill
passive learning
performance
Random Practice
switching skill
can transfer to various environments
active learning
learning
Constant Practice
parameters don’t change
performance
Variable Practice
same skill, different parameters (speed, distance, etc.)
learning
generates skill w/ various situations
Massed Practice
longer work sessions & shorter rest
less sessions
performance
used when limited time/space
used w/ highly motivated individuals
Distributed Practice
longer rest ratio
more sessions
learning
What types of practice facilitate learning?
Random
Variable
Distributed
Task Organization & Complexity
Complexity
how many subcomponents?
how many information processing demands?
Organization
interdependence of components
how much does performance of each part of skill depend on component that precedes it
Part Practice Techniques
segmentation
break down skill into sequential parts
fractionization
breaking skill into parts based on upper/lower limbs or respective side
simplification
any technique that makes skill easier
What are the types of feedback based on level of learning?
Intrinsic
Augmented
What is the sandwich approach for feedback?
Reinforce
reinforce what they’re doing well
Correct
show what they’re doing wrong
Encourage
encourage & motivate them
What are the different strategies to reduce the amount of feedback given (feedback frequency)?
Faded feedback
Bandwidth feedback
Summary Feedback
Average Feedback
Learner-regulated feedback
Timing of Feedback
feedback delay interval
post-feedback interval
Feedback Delay Interval
when feedback provided too soon, learning is hindered by learner being dependent on instructor
Post Feedback Interval
learners synthesize information they received
How do you manipulate task constraints to shape a movement pattern and provide an opportunity for success?
tasks and/or practice variables can be manipulated to shape movement patterns
Categories of Error/Skill Correction
Retry
Refine
Rebuild
Retry Skill Correction
simple modification of established pattern
easy to correct
little or no learning required
can be changed quickly
little or no adverse effect on performance
Refine Skill Correction
improvement of established pattern
moderate effort to correct
reasonable amount of learning required
varying amounts of time
initial performance decrement
Rebuild Skill Correction
new pattern
difficulty to correct
extensive learning required
substantial amount of time
negative impact on performance initially
negative transfer
frustrating
Intrinsic Feedback
Vision
Proprioception
Hearing
Touch
Augmented Feedback
Knowledge of Results
Knowledge of Performance (facilitates learning)
Knowledge of Results
telling people their outcome
Knowledge of Performance
telling people the error in their technique (learning)
What are the three functions of augmented learning?
Error correction
give feedback why technique was incorrect
Motivation
give feedback to show growth
Reinforcement
reinforce encouragement
What is the content of augmented feedback?
Error vs Correct Feedback
Descriptive vs Prescriptive Feedback
Degree of Precision in Feedback
Error vs Correct Feedback
Facilitate them learning correct technique (error)
Reinforce correct movement & show growth over time (correct)
Descriptive vs. Prescriptive
Describing nature of performance/what it is they did (descriptive)
beneficial for experienced learners (active learners)
Offering suggestions on how to do the skill different (prescriptive)
Degree of Precision in Feedback
During early stages of learning be more general to help learner get foundation
Later in learning process when skills are being refined, feedback can be more detailed
Gross vs. Fine
Gross (large muscles)
force production
Fine (control of small muscles)
high degree of precision
Continuous vs. Serial vs. Discrete Skill
Continuous
repetitive, locomotor, no clear beginning or end
ex: swimming
Serial
series of discrete skills
ex: series of squats
Discrete
clear beginning & end
ex: squat
Open vs. Closed Skill
Open
In-motion, inter-trial variability
Closed
Stationary, no inter-trial variability
Stationary vs. In-Motion
Is the environment dynamic
ex: golf (stationary)
basketball (in-motion)
Inter-Trial Variability
Same or different conditions from one trial to the other
Fixed (balls path & speed same each trial)
Variable (balls speed & path different each trial)
What are the factors that affect our physiological development and performance?
Aerobic performance
Anaerobic performance
Strength
Thermoregulation
What are the two factors that influence aerobic performance?
Cardiac Output
Pulmonary Ventilation
What is cardiac output?
the amount of blood ejected from the heart
-cardiac output = HR x SV
What is stroke volume?
how much blood is ejected with each contraction of the heart
What happens to cardiac output as we age?
It increases because SV increases
-HR decreases with age
What is the factor that influences stroke volume?
ventricular contractility
What is ventricular contractility?
the force generated by the left ventricle
Why do children have a lower SV?
they have less red blood cells and hemoglobin (RBC = O2 carriers)
What is pulmonary ventilation?
the amount of air we can take into our lungs from the environment
-increases w/ age
Why do children have a lower pulmonary ventilation?
-there is less O2 transported to the tissues
-they need quick, periodic breaks to recover (work for shorter periods, but can recover quicker)
What are the energy systems used during aerobic performance?
Kreb Cycle
Electron Transport Chain
What are the energy systems used during anaerobic performance?
ATP-CP (Creatine Phosphate)
Glycolysis
What type of aerobic activities would benefit kids?
activities with short bursts of energy and periodic breaks in between
ex: tag
What type of anaerobic activities would benefit kids?
intermittent activities
What has a direct impact on the increase in muscle mass as a result of anaerobic performance/training?
Maturation
What is the phosphagen system (ATP-CP)?
uses stored ATP & creatine kinase for energy
used in < 6 seconds of activity
lower stores of ATP & creatine kinase in kids
What is glycolysis?
uses glycogen to create ATP
decreased stores in younger kids
anaerobic energy system
What are the factors that influence anaerobic performance?
increase in muscle mass
ATP-CP
Glycolysis
Lactate threshold
What is lactate threshold?
the point at which the body is making more lactic acid then the body can get rid of
lower lactic threshold in kids
What are the types of strength training that would benefit kids?
Bodyweight
Light resistance
Make training more fun & obstacle-focused
ex: playground, obstacle course, gymnastics, etc.
What is the type of thermoregulation that affects kids?
Evaporation
What is evaporation?
when the heat is lost through water-loss (sweating)
Why do kids have a lower evaporation rate than adults?
Less sweat glands
Less effective cooling mechanism within the body
What are effective methods to combat kids low evaporation rates?
prioritizing hydration
taking breaks underneath shade
cooling cloths
How long does it take adults to acclimate to weather compared to chldren?
Adults = 1 week
Children = 2 weeks
Motor Developmental Skill Acquisition Pyramid
specific sport skills & dance
transitional motor skills
proficiency barrier
fundamental motor skills
rudimentary movements
reflexes-reaction
Reflexes-Reaction
simple responses to stimuli (involuntary)
rudimentary movements
same order, different timing
phylogenetic skills = w/o practice
fundamental motor skills
locomotor skills, non-locomotor skills, manipulative
proficiency barrier
can’t move on to next level if you haven’t had enough practice
transitional motor skills
combine skills
specific sport skills & dance
how do we apply skills to specific sport
requires practice
What is schemas?
category of knowledge
how we organize information
What is assimilation?
occurs when you experience something and plug it into an existing category
What is accommodation?
When you experience and event and create a new category?