Final Exam

Maturation

1. rate of progress towards an adult state
2. maturation is genetically controlled

Growth

1. Quantitative increases in size or magnitude (natural changes not training changes)
2. Occurs over time
3. Conception → late adolescence (early 20s)
4. same general pattern
5. different individual rate

Development

1. Change in level of functioning
2. Growth, maturation, & experience contribute

Physical Development

* early vs later maturer
* early have temporary advantage
* males & late maturers are taller
* girls mature faster
* boys & girls similar until girls hit maturation (age 9)

What are the principles of growth?

* quantitative increase in size or magnitude
* occurs over time
* conception to late adolescence (early 20s)

What are the two measures of maturation?

1. Maturational Age
2. Chronological Age

What are the advantages of early maturers?

* better coordination & ability to adapt

What are the growth patterns?

increase in length, then breadth, then circumference, then density

What are the challenges of the different measures of body composition?

1. BMI


1. proportion of height & weight
2. muscle weighs more than fat
3. designed for general group not individual
2. Skin Folds


1. not accurate if measurer isn’t trained properly
3. Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA)


1. impulse runs through body
2. runs differently through fat & muscle
3. easy & accurate

What are the three means of measuring body composition?

1. BMI
2. Skin Fold
3. BIA (bioelectrical impedance analysis)

What are the three somatotypes?

1. Ectomorph


1. tall, lean, distributed weight
2. Endomorph


1. round, short, concentrated weight
3. Mesomorph


1. athletic, upside-down dorito

What are the concerns with fitness testing?

1. MVPA vs Fitness objectives


1. early on only recognized top 10% of individuals
2. Are we training them?


1. never worked on improving fitness testing components
3. Historically only honor athletically gifted

Specialization

* don’t let kids specialize at early age
* greater expertise
* more active
* less injury
* impossible to predict what kid will excel

What are the stages of cognitive development?

1. Schema
2. Assimilation
3. Accommodation

What are the two categories of skill classification?

1. Unidimensional
2. Gentile’s Taxonomy

Unidimensional

1. Gross vs Fine Motor Skill
2. Discrete vs Serial vs Continuous
3. Open vs Closed

Gentile’s Taxonomy

1. Two Dimensions


1. Regulatory Conditions (environment)


1. Stationary or In-Motion
2. Inter-Trial Variability
2. Function of the Action


1. Object Manipulation
2. Body Transport

What are the stages of information processing (movement preparation)?

1. Input
2. Stimulus Identification
3. Response Selection
4. Response Programming
5. Output

What are the factors that impact reaction time? (movement preparation)?

1. Number of Response Choices
2. Levels of Uncertainty
3. Anticipation
4. Foreperiod Consistency
5. Psychological Refractory Period

Arousal & Performance

optimal arousal = peak performance

What impact does arousal have on someone’s perceptual field?

* broad-external
* narrow-external
* broad-internal
* narrow-internal

What is learning?

* relatively permanent change in behavior
* result of practice
* persists over time & inferred from practice

Fitts & Posner’s 3 Stage Model

1. Cognitive Stage


1. development of basic involvement pattern
2. self-talk
3. attention demanding
4. errors
2. Associative Stage


1. refinement of movement pattern
2. fewer errors
3. better at detecting errors
3. Autonomous Stage


1. performance of movement virtually automatic
2. consistent
3. error detection & correction

Gentile’s Two Stage Model

1. Getting Idea of Movement


1. learners’ goals
2. understand movement requirements
2. Fixation(closed)/Diversification(open)


1. refine the skill

How do you assess learning?

* outcome measures
* time
* frequency
* distance
* accuracy
* consistency

What are the types of transfer?

* positive
* negative
* zero

How do you foster positive transfer?

* determine cost-benefit tradeoff

How do you know if learning has occured?

* error detection & correction
* self-confidence
* movement pattern
* attention

What will you see in the performance if learning has occured?

* increase in performance over time

What are the different types of practice design?

* blocked vs random
* constant vs variable
* measured vs distributed

Blocked Practice

* focus on skill
* practices skill until done, then moves onto next skill
* passive learning
* performance

Random Practice

* switching skill
* can transfer to various environments
* active learning
* learning

Constant Practice

* parameters don’t change
* performance

Variable Practice

* same skill, different parameters (speed, distance, etc.)
* learning
* generates skill w/ various situations

Massed Practice

* longer work sessions & shorter rest
* less sessions
* performance
* used when limited time/space
* used w/ highly motivated individuals

Distributed Practice

* longer rest ratio
* more sessions
* learning

What types of practice facilitate learning?

1. Random
2. Variable
3. Distributed

Task Organization & Complexity

1. Complexity


1. how many subcomponents?
2. how many information processing demands?
2. Organization


1. interdependence of components
2. how much does performance of each part of skill depend on component that precedes it

Part Practice Techniques

* segmentation
* break down skill into sequential parts
* fractionization
* breaking skill into parts based on upper/lower limbs or respective side
* simplification
* any technique that makes skill easier

What are the types of feedback based on level of learning?

1. Intrinsic
2. Augmented

What is the sandwich approach for feedback?

1. Reinforce


1. reinforce what they’re doing well
2. Correct


1. show what they’re doing wrong
3. Encourage


1. encourage & motivate them

What are the different strategies to reduce the amount of feedback given (feedback frequency)?

1. Faded feedback
2. Bandwidth feedback
3. Summary Feedback
4. Average Feedback
5. Learner-regulated feedback

Timing of Feedback

* feedback delay interval
* post-feedback interval

Feedback Delay Interval

when feedback provided too soon, learning is hindered by learner being dependent on instructor

Post Feedback Interval

learners synthesize information they received

How do you manipulate task constraints to shape a movement pattern and provide an opportunity for success?

tasks and/or practice variables can be manipulated to shape movement patterns

Categories of Error/Skill Correction

1. Retry
2. Refine
3. Rebuild

Retry Skill Correction

* simple modification of established pattern
* easy to correct
* little or no learning required
* can be changed quickly
* little or no adverse effect on performance

Refine Skill Correction

* improvement of established pattern
* moderate effort to correct
* reasonable amount of learning required
* varying amounts of time
* initial performance decrement

Rebuild Skill Correction

* new pattern
* difficulty to correct
* extensive learning required
* substantial amount of time
* negative impact on performance initially
* negative transfer
* frustrating

Intrinsic Feedback

1. Vision
2. Proprioception
3. Hearing
4. Touch

Augmented Feedback

1. Knowledge of Results
2. Knowledge of Performance (facilitates learning)

Knowledge of Results

telling people their outcome

Knowledge of Performance

telling people the error in their technique (learning)

What are the three functions of augmented learning?

1. Error correction


1. give feedback why technique was incorrect
2. Motivation


1. give feedback to show growth
3. Reinforcement


1. reinforce encouragement

What is the content of augmented feedback?

1. Error vs Correct Feedback
2. Descriptive vs Prescriptive Feedback
3. Degree of Precision in Feedback

Error vs Correct Feedback

1. Facilitate them learning correct technique (error)
2. Reinforce correct movement & show growth over time (correct)

Descriptive vs. Prescriptive

1. Describing nature of performance/what it is they did (descriptive)


1. beneficial for experienced learners (active learners)
2. Offering suggestions on how to do the skill different (prescriptive)

Degree of Precision in Feedback

1. During early stages of learning be more general to help learner get foundation
2. Later in learning process when skills are being refined, feedback can be more detailed

Gross vs. Fine

1. Gross (large muscles)


1. force production
2. Fine (control of small muscles)


1. high degree of precision

Continuous vs. Serial vs. Discrete Skill

1. Continuous


1. repetitive, locomotor, no clear beginning or end
2. ex: swimming
2. Serial


1. series of discrete skills
2. ex: series of squats
3. Discrete


1. clear beginning & end
2. ex: squat

Open vs. Closed Skill

1. Open


1. In-motion, inter-trial variability
2. Closed


1. Stationary, no inter-trial variability

Stationary vs. In-Motion

1. Is the environment dynamic


1. ex: golf (stationary)
2. basketball (in-motion)

Inter-Trial Variability

1. Same or different conditions from one trial to the other
2. Fixed (balls path & speed same each trial)
3. Variable (balls speed & path different each trial)

What are the factors that affect our physiological development and performance?

1. Aerobic performance
2. Anaerobic performance
3. Strength
4. Thermoregulation

What are the two factors that influence aerobic performance?

1. Cardiac Output
2. Pulmonary Ventilation

What is cardiac output?

the amount of blood ejected from the heart

\-cardiac output = HR x SV

What is stroke volume?

how much blood is ejected with each contraction of the heart

What happens to cardiac output as we age?

It increases because SV increases

\-HR decreases with age

What is the factor that influences stroke volume?

ventricular contractility

What is ventricular contractility?

the force generated by the left ventricle

Why do children have a lower SV?

they have less red blood cells and hemoglobin (RBC = O2 carriers)

What is pulmonary ventilation?

the amount of air we can take into our lungs from the environment

\-increases w/ age

Why do children have a lower pulmonary ventilation?

\-there is less O2 transported to the tissues

\-they need quick, periodic breaks to recover (work for shorter periods, but can recover quicker)

What are the energy systems used during aerobic performance?

1. Kreb Cycle
2. Electron Transport Chain

What are the energy systems used during anaerobic performance?

1. ATP-CP (Creatine Phosphate)
2. Glycolysis

What type of aerobic activities would benefit kids?

1. activities with short bursts of energy and periodic breaks in between


1. ex: tag

What type of anaerobic activities would benefit kids?

intermittent activities

What has a direct impact on the increase in muscle mass as a result of anaerobic performance/training?

Maturation

What is the phosphagen system (ATP-CP)?

1. uses stored ATP & creatine kinase for energy
2. used in < 6 seconds of activity
3. lower stores of ATP & creatine kinase in kids

What is glycolysis?

1. uses glycogen to create ATP
2. decreased stores in younger kids
3. anaerobic energy system

What are the factors that influence anaerobic performance?

1. increase in muscle mass
2. ATP-CP
3. Glycolysis
4. Lactate threshold

What is lactate threshold?

the point at which the body is making more lactic acid then the body can get rid of


1. lower lactic threshold in kids

What are the types of strength training that would benefit kids?

1. Bodyweight
2. Light resistance
3. Make training more fun & obstacle-focused


1. ex: playground, obstacle course, gymnastics, etc.

What is the type of thermoregulation that affects kids?

Evaporation

What is evaporation?

when the heat is lost through water-loss (sweating)

Why do kids have a lower evaporation rate than adults?

1. Less sweat glands
2. Less effective cooling mechanism within the body

What are effective methods to combat kids low evaporation rates?

1. prioritizing hydration
2. taking breaks underneath shade
3. cooling cloths

How long does it take adults to acclimate to weather compared to chldren?

1. Adults = 1 week
2. Children = 2 weeks

Motor Developmental Skill Acquisition Pyramid

* specific sport skills & dance
* transitional motor skills
* proficiency barrier
* fundamental motor skills
* rudimentary movements
* reflexes-reaction

Reflexes-Reaction

simple responses to stimuli (involuntary)

rudimentary movements

* same order, different timing
* phylogenetic skills = w/o practice

fundamental motor skills

locomotor skills, non-locomotor skills, manipulative

proficiency barrier

can’t move on to next level if you haven’t had enough practice

transitional motor skills

combine skills

specific sport skills & dance

* how do we apply skills to specific sport
* requires practice

What is schemas?

1. category of knowledge
2. how we organize information

What is assimilation?

occurs when you experience something and plug it into an existing category

What is accommodation?

When you experience and event and create a new category?