Brain and Behavior (Reading Guide Questions)

Define ‘Neuron’

A nerve cell that is the basic building block of the nervous system, responsible for transmitting information throughout the body.

What is the difference between a participant, a patient, and a subject in psychological research?

- A participant is actively involved in a study

- A patient receives medical or therapeutic care

- A subject is a more general term for someone observed or studied in research.

The ________ is the outer layer of the cerebrum, involved in complex cognitive functions.

neocortex (cortex)

What does ‘dualism’ refer to in the context of psychology?

It is a theory proposed by Descartes that posits the mind and body as separate entities, with the mind controlling the body.

How did Thomas Hobbes contribute to the field of psychology?

He introduced materialism, suggesting that mental processes are the result of physical interactions in the brain, rejecting the existence of a non-physical mind.

René Descartes is known for the concept of ________, which emphasizes the separation of mind and body.

dualism

Define ‘bilateral symmetry’ in the context of nervous system evolution.

Refers to the property of being divisible into symmetrical halves on either side of a unique plane, common in more complex organisms with a centralized nervous system.

Explain the significance of ganglia in the evolution of nervous systems.

They are clusters of neurons that act as mini control centers in each body segment of simple organisms, enhancing the processing of local information.

In the evolutionary progression of the nervous system, the development of the ________ centralized the control over the entire system.

brain

‘Plasticity’ refers to the brain’s ability to ________ in response to learning or injury.

change and adapt

The ________ helps relay sensory information from the body to the cerebrum.

brainstem

Define ‘materialism’ in psychology.

The belief that physical matter is the only reality and that all mental processes are the result of material interactions.

Describe how ‘mentalism’ views the role of the brain.

Views the brain as a passive receiver or processor of signals from the mind, focusing on internal mental states and consciousness.

Explain the impact of natural selection on the understanding of behavior according to materialism.

It suggests that behaviors and mental processes evolved because they were advantageous for survival, emphasizing the role of physical processes in shaping behavior.

According to Descartes, the ________ is the seat where the non-physical mind interacts with the physical body.

brain

Define ‘neural net’.

A diffuse network of interconnected neurons that allows basic responses to the environment in simple organisms.

How does the centralization of the nervous system in more advanced organisms like vertebrates enhance functionality?

It allows for better coordination and integration of information, leading to more efficient processing, decision-making, and control over bodily functions

The evolution of the nervous system in animals involved the development of the ________, which centralized control over the entire nervous system.

brain

________ symmetry led to a more organized nervous system with directional movement control.

Bilateral

Plasticity

The ability of the brain to adapt and change through growth and reorganization.

Bipedalism

The ability to walk upright on two legs, characteristic of hominins.

Encephalization Quotient

A measure of brain size relative to body size, used to estimate an animal’s intelligence.

Cerebellum

A part of the brain at the back of the skull in vertebrates, responsible for coordinating and regulating muscular activity.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of neural tissue of the cerebrum of the brain, involved in high-level brain functions such as sensation, voluntary muscle movement, thought, reasoning, and memory.

Neural Connections

Links between neurons that transmit information through electrical and chemical signals.

Memes

Cultural elements that spread through imitation, contrasting with genetic inheritance.

Cultural Intelligence Hypothesi

Suggests that the complexity of human culture has driven the evolution of larger and more complex brains.

Social Brain Hypothesis

Proposes that complex social structures require greater cognitive abilities, leading to larger brains.

Expensive Tissue Hypothes

Suggests a trade-off between the size of the brain and other energetically costly organs.

How does brain size relate to the development of tools in hominin species?

As brain size increased, so did the complexity of tools developed by hominins.

What are the three main ways to describe brain complexity?

Through brain size, the number of neural connections, and the organization of brain regions.

What limitations exist when using brain size as a measure of behavioral complexity?

Brain size alone doesn’t account for crucial factors like structure, neuron density, or connectivity.

Explain why the cerebral cortex is significant in the study of brain complexity.

It is involved in high-level functions such as reasoning, memory, and conscious thought.

Discuss why elephants have larger brains than humans yet exhibit less complex behavior.

Elephants’ larger brains are mainly due to increases in non-cortical areas like the cerebellum, which are less involved in complex cognition.

The __________ measures brain size relative to body size and is used to estimate intelligence.

Encephalization Quotient

Hominins are distinct from other primates due to their ability to walk __________.

Upright (or bipedally)

__________ is the ability of the brain to adapt and change, crucial for learning and memory.

Plasticity

The __________ is responsible for coordinating and regulating muscular activity in vertebrates.

Cerebellum

__________ drives the need for larger brains due to the requirement for managing more complex social interactions.

The Social Brain Hypothesis

Environmental challenges that demand sophisticated problem-solving skills support the __________ Hypothesis.

Ecological

The __________ suggests that there is a biological trade-off between brain size and the size of other energetically expensive organs.

Expensive Tissue Hypothesis

Cultural elements that spread behavior or ideas through imitation are known as __________.

Memes

Variation in abilities within a group fosters adaptability, innovation, and resilience in __________ environments.

Changing

The __________ is involved in high-level brain functions such as thought and memory.

Cerebral Cortex

__________ connections are essential for transmitting information between neurons in the brain.

Neural

The __________ Hypothesis argues that human brain complexity evolved due to the challenges of navigating social networks.

Social Brain

The __________ of culture is believed to drive the evolution of larger brains according to the Cultural Intelligence Hypothesis.

Complexity

__________ Hypothesis suggests that the brain evolved to handle more complex social structur

Social Brain

The role of __________ in human evolution is highlighted in the Cultural Intelligence Hypothesis.

Culture

Neuropathology

The study of diseases of the nervous system tiss

Afferent Neurons

Neurons that carry sensory information to the brai

Efferent Neurons

Neurons that carry motor commands from the brain to the muscles.

Subarachnoid Space

The area through which cerebrospinal fluid flows.

Cerebral Arteries

Arteries that supply blood to the cerebrum.

What role does the parasympathetic nervous system play in the body?

It is responsible for ‘rest and digest’ functions, conserving energy as it slows the heart rate, increases intestinal and gland activity.

Describe the relationship between the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).

The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, acting as the control center; the PNS consists of all other neural elements, carrying sensory and motor information to and from the CNS

What might happen if there was damage to the frontal lobe of the brain?

It could result in impaired cognitive functions such as problem-solving, decision making, and affect emotional control.

What are the primary functions of the basal ganglia?

They play a key role in movement regulation, cognitive processing, and learning.

Explain the function of the thalamus in the human brain.

It acts as a relay station, channeling sensory and motor signals to and from the cerebral cortex, excluding the sense of smell.

The __________ nervous system is responsible for ‘fight or flight’ responses.

Sympathetic

Damage to the __________ might result in problems with balance and motor learning due to its role in coordinating voluntary movements.

Cerebellum

__________ neurons carry sensory information to the brain, helping to process external stimuli.

Afferent

The __________ matter of the brain consists of neuronal cell bodies and dendrites.

Grey

The __________ carries CSF and lies between the arachnoid membrane and the pia mater.

Subarachnoid Space

The __________ views of the brain include dorsal, medial, ventral, and lateral

Type

If there is an obstruction in the __________, it might lead to a stroke due to the lack of oxygen and nutrient supply to the brain.

Cerebral arteries

__________ is the area that processes emotions, especially fear, and plays a role in behavior and motivation.

Amygdala

__________ are the structures in the CNS that bundle axons.

Tracts

Injuries to the __________ lobe can lead to impaired memory, speech, and sometimes psychotic experiences.

Temporal

The __________ cortex is involved in emotion formation, processing, learning, and memory with a focus on internal states and autonomic functions.

Cingulate

__________ neurons carry motor commands from the brain to muscles and glands.

Efferent

The __________ nervous system is referred to as the second brain due to its role in managing digestion

Enteric

The __________ of the brain is considered essential for forming new memories and spatial navigation

Hippocampus

The __________ system is responsible for the sense of smell, integrating odor information with emotional centers.

Olfactory

The structural plan of the human brain includes __________, ventricles, and cerebrospinal fluid pathways.

Cortexes

The __________ is the protective membrane closest to the brain and spinal cord tissue.

Pia mater

The __________ are the neuronal clusters in the CNS.

Nuclei

The flow of cerebral spinal fluid through the ventricles is critical for __________ the brain and removing waste.

Cushioning

The __________ relays signals from the forebrain to the cerebellum and supports basic functions like sleep and wakefulness.

Pons

Olfactory Nerve (I)

The cranial nerve responsible for the sense of smell.

Optic Nerve (II)

The cranial nerve that transmits visual information from the retina to the brain.

Vagus Nerve (X)

A cranial nerve that interfaces with parasympathetic control of the heart, lungs, and digestive tract.

Microelectrodes

Devices used to measure or stimulate electrical activity in cells.

Resting Potential

The electrical charge across a neuron’s membrane due to differences in ion concentration inside and outside the cell.

What is the function of the trigeminal nerve?

It is responsible for facial sensation and motor functions such as biting and chewing

Explain the difference between an excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) and an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP).

An EPSP is a synaptic potential that makes a neuron more likely to fire an action potential, while an IPSP is a synaptic potential that makes a neuron less likely to fire.

Describe how the sodium-potassium pump contributes to a neuron’s resting potential.

By moving three sodium ions out of the neuron for every two potassium ions it brings in, thus maintaining a negative charge inside the neuron.

What roles do astrocytes play in the nervous system?

They provide structural and metabolic support for neurons, maintain the blood-brain barrier, and regulate ion balance in the brain.

How do concentration and voltage gradients influence ion movement across neuron membranes?

Ions move across neuron membranes from areas of high concentration to low concentration (concentration gradient), and from areas of higher electric potential to lower (voltage gradient), which is crucial for the generation of action potentials.

The __________ nerve is crucial for transmitting auditory signals to the brain.

Vestibulocochlear

__________ are specialized structures within the neuron that help transmit the electrical signal down the axon.

Axon hillocks

The __________ matter of the brain contains high densities of myelinated axons, which speed up the transmission of electrical signals.

White

In a neuron, the __________ receives incoming signals from other neurons.

Dendrites

The __________ is a type of glial cell that wraps around axons in the CNS to form myelin sheaths.

Oligodendrocyte

A neuron with a membrane potential more negative than the resting potential is said to be __________.

Hyperpolarized

__________ is the process by which a neuron becomes more negatively charged, moving further away from zero.

Hyperpolarization

The action potential moves along the neuron’s axon by __________.

Saltatory conduction

The __________ nerve affects facial expressions and taste sensations.

Facial

The __________ is the site of contact where neurotransmitters are released to communicate with other neurons

Synapse

The difference between the resting potential and the threshold potential is essential for the generation of __________.

An action potential