Unit 0 Foundations of Psychology as a Science.

Cultural Norms

The unwritten rules of a society which dictate how people act in situations if you were to go against these it would be unaccepted.

Confirmation Bias

A tendency to search for information that supports our pre-existing belief or opinions instead of objectively evaluating info.

Hindsight Bias, “I knew it all along”

The tendency to believe after learning an outcome that you knew it from the beginning.

Occurs when, after an event has occurred, we believe we predicted the outcome beforehand.

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct.

Overestimating ourselves

Experimental Research Design

How participants are distributed to different groups in an experiment. (Repeated measures, independent groups, matched pairs)

Case Study

An individual or group is studied thoroughly to attempt to reveal universal principles.

Correlation

A measure of the extent of how two factors vary together, or how well one factor predicts the other.

Meta-analysis

A procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the behavior or relationship between variables.

Falsifiable

The logical possibility that an assertion, hypothesis, or theory can be proven incorrect through observation or experiment.

Operational Definitions

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in research studies.

Independent Variable(s)

The thing that is changed or manipulated by you in an experiment to see its effect.

Dependent Variable(s)

What is measured, changes when the independent variable is manipulated.

Confounding Variables

A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results.

Sample

A portion of a population that is selected to help make inferences about the population.

Population

Everyone in a group that is being studied

Representative Sample

A group that matches the characteristics of the population as a whole.

Random Sampling

A sample that fairly represents the population because each member has an equal chance of incluson.

Convenience Sampling

Selecting a group of people/cases in no particular way but rather by who gets there first/is readily available.

Sampling Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Generalizabilty

The extent to which results or findings from a group is able to be applied to the general population.

Experimental Group

The group exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable

Control group

In an experiment, the group not exposed to the treatment. Used as a comparison to evaluate the effect of the treatment.

Placebo “I shall please”

Any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.

Single-blind

Being unaware of the experimental conditions that you (a participant) are put under.

Double-blind

Both the research participants and staff are ignorant(blind) about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Drug Evalutions

Social Desirability Bias

The extent to which a trait/attribute is considered valuable within a social group.

Qualitative Data

The recorded descriptions such as behavior, thoughts, attitudes, and experiences.

Quantitative Data

The numerical data, such as measurements or test scores.

Peer Review

The evaluation of work by qualified professionals in the same field.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations to see whether basic findings can be reproduced.

Variables

A condition in an experiment that can take on different categories, levels, or value, that can be measured.

Directionality Problem

The situation where “we” are aware that two variables are related although it is unsure which is the cause or effect.

Third Variable Problem

Two variables are found to have a correlation, and it may be that an unintended 3rd variable is causing a coincidental relationship between the two variables.

Survey Technique

A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, which is usually by questioning a representative, or by random sample of the group

Self-report bias

A readiness to perceive oneself favorably

Institutional review

A group of people who truly believe and determine that the studies of a psychologist should be ethically sound.

Informed Consent

Giving potential participants enough information about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Informed assent

A person’s voluntary agreement to participate in an experiment when informed of its risks and benefits.

Protection from harm

Ensuring that individuals will be physically and emotionally safe during psychological research.

Confidentiality

An ethical principle preventing providers of healthcare to limit disclosure of patients information

Deception

To hide the facts with the purpose of misleading others.

Research Confederates

People who are purposely employed in psych experiments to silently participate with real test subjects

Debriefing

The post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution

Mode

The most frequent occurring scores in a distribution

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean.

Variation

Having differences among the people in population; either because of heredity of their surroundings.

Skewness

Lack of symmetry around a central point in a data set.

Bimodal distribution

A set of data with two modes which values cluster around. The frequencies increase, then decrease around each peak.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Percentile Rank

The percentage of individuals with scores at or below a particular value.

Regression towards the mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to regress toward the average.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots which represent the values of two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things.

Effect size

Any of various measures that show magnitude of the relationship between two variables.

Statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.