stupid bio test reveiw

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CELLUAR RESPERATION AND PHOTOSYNTHSIS STUFFS

Organic Compounds

Molecules containing carbon and hydrogen, often with oxygen, nitrogen, and other elements.

Isomers

Molecules with the same molecular formula but different structures.

Hydrocarbons

Compounds composed entirely of hydrogen and carbon.

Functional Groups

Specific groups of atoms within molecules that determine chemical properties.

Hydrophilic

“Water-loving” molecules that dissolve easily in water.

Macromolecules

Large molecules made of smaller subunits.

Polymers

Macromolecules made of repeating monomer units.

Monomers

Small subunits that make up polymers.

Dimer

Molecule made of two monomers.

Dehydration

Chemical reactions that join monomers by removing water.

Hydrolysis

Chemical reactions that break polymers into monomers by adding water.

Polar Molecule

Molecule with unequal distribution of charges.

Hydrogen Bond

Weak bond between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom of another molecule.

Thermal Energy

Energy of random movement of atoms and molecules.

High Specific Heat Capacity

Water’s resistance to temperature change due to hydrogen bonding.

Solvent

Substance that dissolves solutes.

Solute

Substance that is dissolved in a solvent.

Acids

Compounds that donate H+ ions.

Bases

Compounds that remove H+ ions.

Buffers

Substances that resist changes in pH.

Fertilization

Fusion of sperm and egg to form a zygote.

Differentiation

Process by which cells become specialized in structure and function.

Stem Cells

Undifferentiated cells that can become specialized; types

Gastrula

Embryo with 3 differentiated germ layers.

Organogenesis

Formation of organs and organ systems from germ layers.

Organ System

Set of organs working together for a common function.

Cell Cycle

Repeated pattern of growth, DNA replication, and cell division.

Cell Cycle

G1 (cell growth and protein synthesis), S (DNA replication), G2 (more growth and protein synthesis), M (mitosis).

Chromosome

Thread of DNA containing genes.

Gene

Section of DNA coding for a protein.

Human Chromosomes

46 total, in 23 homologous pairs.

Chromatid

One half of a duplicated chromosome.

Centromere

Pinched region holding chromatids together.

Telomere

Ends of DNA molecules.

Mitosis

Division of nucleus into 2 identical daughter cells.

Prophase

Chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane disappears, spindle fibers form.

Metaphase

Chromosomes line up in the middle, spindle fibers attach to centromeres.

Anaphase

Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles.

Telophase

Chromosomes decondense, nuclear membrane reforms, spindle fibers break down.

Cytokinesis

Cytoplasm divides; cell plate forms in plants, cleavage furrow forms in animals.

Checkpoint

Critical point where “stop” and “go” signals regulate the cycle.

Tumor Types

Benign (clustered, usually harmless), Malignant (spread to other areas).

Metastasize

Spread of cancer to other body parts.

Carcinogens

Substances causing cancer by mutating DNA.

Dynamic Equilibrium

Stable balance that fluctuates within a range.

Stimulus

Change in environment.

Response

Change in organism due to stimulus.

Feedback Mechanisms

Processes that use system output to stabilize or amplify input.

Positive Feedback

Output intensifies the response (e.g., childbirth, fruit ripening).

Negative Feedback

Output triggers counter-response to maintain set point (e.g., body temperature, blood sugar).

Cell Membrane

Selectively permeable barrier controlling movement in/out of cell.

Passive Transport

Movement of molecules down concentration gradient without energy.

Active Transport

Movement of molecules against concentration gradient using ATP.

Concentration Gradient

Difference in concentration between two areas.

Simple Diffusion

Molecules spread out until equilibrium is reached.

Facilitated Diffusion

Type of diffucion where transport proteins help molecules move down gradient.

Transport Protein

Channel or carrier protein aiding diffusion.

Osmosis

Diffusion of water across membrane.

Hypertonic

Water concentration lower than cell → cell shrinks.

Hypotonic

Water concentration higher than cell → cell swells.

Isotonic

Water concentration equal → no net change.

Molecular Pumps

Active transport proteins moving ions or molecules against gradient.

Endocytosis

Vesicles bring substances into cell; includes phagocytosis (solids) and pinocytosis (liquids).

Exocytosis

Vesicles release substances out of the cell.

Cell Theory

All living things are made of cells; cells are basic units of life; all cells come from pre-existing cells.

Prokaryotic

Simple cells without membrane-bound organelles.

Eukaryotic Cells

Complex cells with membrane-bound organelles.

Cytoskeleton

Protein fibers giving structure and shape; moves organelles.

Cytoplasm

Jelly-like fluid holding organelles and allowing reactions.

Nucleus

Contains DNA; controls cell activities.

Nucleolus

Produces rRNA for ribosomes.

Ribosomes

Make proteins (translation).

Rough ER

Ribosome-covered ER; synthesizes and packages proteins.

Smooth ER

Synthesizes lipids; stores Ca²⁺.

Golgi Apparatus

Processes, sorts, and ships proteins.

Lysosomes

Contain enzymes; break down waste and damaged cells.

Vacuoles

Storage of water, nutrients, waste.

Centrioles (animal only)

Help organize spindle fibers during cell division.

Cilia and Flagella

Two organells that move the cell or fluid

Chloroplast (plants only)

This organelle helps with Photosynthesis; convert light energy to chemical energy.

Cell Wall (plants/fungi/bacteria)

Protects and maintains shape.

Central Vacuole (plants)

Large storage organelle.

Phospholipid Bilayer

Cell membrane structure; hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails.

Fluid Mosaic Model

Membrane composed of moving lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates.

Proteins

Monomer = amino acids; polymer = polypeptides; functions

Amino Acid Structure

Central carbon with amino group, carboxyl group, H, R group.

Peptide Bond

Covalent bond linking amino acids; formed by dehydration reaction.

Protein Structure Levels

Primary, secondary (H-bonds), tertiary (3D), quaternary (multiple polypeptides).

Denaturation

Loss of protein shape and function.

Nucleic Acids

Monomer = nucleotide; polymer = DNA/RNA; function = store/transfer genetic info.

Carbohydrates

Monomer = monosaccharide; dimer = disaccharide; polymer = polysaccharide; function = energy source, structural support.

Lipids

Fats, oils, waxes, steroids; nonpolar, hydrophobic; functions = energy storage, membrane structure, hormones.

Monosaccharides

Carb monomer

Polysaccharides

Carb Polymer

glycerol

Lipid monomer

Triglycerides

Lipid polymer

Amino acids

Protien Monomer

Polypeptides

Protien Polymer