Macromolecules: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, and Nucleic Acids

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering the four major macromolecules, their structures, functions, and chemical components based on the lecture notes.

Carbohydrates

Macromolecules used for energy release and storage in the body, containing the elements $C$, $H$, and $O$.

Monosaccharides

Simple sugars that represent the monomers of polysaccharides, with glucose being the most common example.

Isomers

Molecules, such as glucose, fructose, and galactose, that have the same number of atoms but are arranged in a different structure.

Dehydration Synthesis

A reaction involving the removal of a water molecule to link monomers together and create longer molecules.

Hydrolysis

The addition of a water molecule to break bonds, forming shorter molecules such as the breakdown of glycogen into glucose.

Disaccharides

Molecules formed when two monosaccharides link together, such as sucrose ($\text{glucose} + \text{fructose}$), lactose, and maltose.

Polysaccharides

Long chains of monosaccharides linked together by glycosidic bonds formed by dehydration synthesis reactions.

Amylose

A component of starch described as a lone branched chan that is cold like a cylinder making it compact and good for storage.

Cellulose

A polysaccharide found in plant cell walls made of long straight chains that form hydrogen bonds to provide support.

Glycogen

A highly branched polysaccharide found in animals that allows for very quick release of glucose and is very compact.

Lipids

A type of macromolecule insoluble in water that includes fats, oils, waxes, and hormones.

Fatty acids

A key component of many lipids consisting of a carboxyl group joined to a hydrocarbon chain of variable length.

Saturated fatty acid

A fatty acid with a straight hydrocarbon chain and no $C=C$ double bonds.

Unsaturated fatty acid

A fatty acid with a bent hydrocarbon chain containing at least one $C=C$ double bond; can be Cis or Trans.

Triglycerides

Molecules used for long-term energy storage and insulation, composed of one glycerol and $3$ fatty acids linked by ester bonds.

Phospholipids

Molecules consisting of a phosphate group, glycerol, and two fatty acids that make up the cell plasma membrane.

Hydrophilic

A term describing the "water loving" phosphate head of a phospholipid.

Hydrophobic

A term describing the "water hating" hydrocarbon tails of a phospholipid.

Waxes

Long chan hydrocarbons that are very water repellent and solid at room temperature, used for water loss prevention in plants or honeycomb construction.

Steroids

Hydrophobic molecules with a basic structure of four rings of carbon atoms, forming the basis of hormones like testosterone and estrogen.

LDL Cholesterol

Low-density lipoprotein, considered the "BAD" cholesterol that can cause fatty deposits to build up in the arteries.

HDL Cholesterol

High-density lipoprotein, considered the "GOOD" cholesterol.

Proteins

Macromolecules made from one or more chains of amino acid monomers containing the elements $C$, $H$, $O$, and $N$.

Amino Acid structure

Consists of an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain known as the R-group.

Peptide bond

The covalent bond that joins amino acids together to form dipeptides and polypeptides.

Essential amino acids

The $9$ of the $20$ amino acids that cannot be made by the body and must be obtained from food.

Primary Structure

The specific sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain coded for by genes.

Secondary Structure

The folding of a polypeptide into alpha helices or beta pleated sheets, stabilized by hydrogen bonds between carboxyl and amino groups.

Tertiary Structure

The 3D folding of a polypeptide based on R-group interactions, including disulfide bridges, ionic bonds, and Van der Waal interactions.

Quaternary Structure

The structure formed when $2$ or more polypeptide chains, called subunits, bind together.

Antibodies

Defense proteins produced by white blood cells that neutralize or mark pathogens for destruction.

Hemoglobin

A transport protein that binds to oxygen in red blood cells to transport it to tissues.

Nucleic Acids

Macromolecules that carry important information, such as DNA and RNA, containing the elements $C$, $H$, $O$, $N$, and $P$.

Nucleotide

The monomer of nucleic acids, consisting of a phosphate group, a pentose sugar, and a nitrogenous base.

Purines

Nitrogenous bases with two rings, including Adenine and Guanine.

Pyrimidines

Nitrogenous bases with a single ring, including Thymine, Cytosine, and Uracil.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

A double helix molecule with anti-parallel strands that contains genetic information passed onto offspring.

RNA (Ribonucleic acid)

A usually single-stranded, shorter molecule containing uracil instead of thymine, important in protein synthesis.

Phosphodiester bonds

Bonds that connect adjacent nucleotides between the sugar and phosphate groups to form the backbone of nucleic acids.

mRNA

Messenger RNA, the type of RNA used as a template to build proteins.

tRNA

Transfer RNA, the type of RNA that carries amino acids.