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negative peace from theoretical viewpoints
liberalism: perhaps to be achieved through diplomacy, negotiation and with the assistance of IGOs, it is a means to an end, rather than an end in itself
realism: more natural state in the anarachical world, states priority is national security over peace for its own sake
positive peace from theoretical viewpoints
Realist view – an unrealistic aim. It is natural for states to compete with each other. Equal status among nation states is both impossible and undesirable
Liberal view – the desired final state in all conflict situations, both are seen as realistic and achievable. Both sides will be willing to make big concessions on core interests and seek to reconcile and forgive
galtungs peace formula
peace = (equity + harmony) ÷ (violence + trauma)
how to increase equity?
basis of equality in order to have peace
political equality
adult citizens have the right to vote an participate in political systems
every citizen is equal to the law
increasing harmony
truth and reconcilliation missions
must se public attitudes towards decisions from surveys
∙ Retributive justice
a theory of justice that considers punishment, if proportionate, to be the best response to crime
Restorative justice
it is a system of criminal justice which focuses on the rehabilitation of the offenders through reconciliation with victims and the community at large
FARC through peace formula
equity: Achieving peace in Colombia requires addressing these structural inequalities and promoting socio-economic equity for all citizens
harmony: Harmony in Colombia entails the establishment of inclusive governance structures, respect for human rights, and social cohesion among diverse communities. The peace process in Colombia, culminating in the signing of the 2016 peace agreement between the government and the FARC, aimed to build harmony by addressing the root causes of the conflict, promoting reconciliation, and fostering a culture of dialogue and cooperation among former adversaries.
reducing violence: reducing violence is a critical component of achieving peace and stability in the country. The peace agreement included provisions for disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) of former combatants
reducing trauma: Healing the psychological wounds of war is essential for building sustainable peace and reconciliation. The peace agreement includes provisions for victims' rights, truth-telling, and reparations, as well as psychosocial support programs to address the trauma experienced by survivors and promote healing and reconciliation.
boston Marathon Bombing Trial
In 2013- retributive justice
Boston Marathon was targeted in a terrorist attack that killed three people and injured hundreds.
perpetrators were indentiied punished
focus is on punishing the offender for their crimes and providing a sense of closure and justice to the victims and the community.
The punishment, in this case, reflects society's condemnation of the heinous acts committed and seeks to deter future similar offenses through the severity of the penalty.
New Zealand's Te Pae Oranga Program- restorative justice
Instead of focusing solely on punishment, the program aims to repair the harm caused by the offense and restore relationships between the offender, the victim, and the community
after a little kid was caught stealing, offender met with the store owner, apologized, and agreed to make amends by working at the store and paying back what was stolen.
Restorative justice prioritizes healing, accountability, and repairing relationships over punitive measures
external balancing of power- NATO
External balancing involves forming alliances or coalitions with other states to counteract the power or influence of a common adversary
NATO is a prime example of external balancing.
exemplifies external balancing, as former Eastern European countries sought to align with Western powers to counter potential Russian aggression.
By pooling their military capabilities and resources, NATO member states aimed to deter aggression and maintain stability in Europe.
internal balancing- japans defense policy
Internal balancing involves strengthening a state's own military capabilities, economic power, or diplomatic influence to enhance its security and strategic autonomy.
Japan has pursued a policy of self-defense, relying on its own military capabilities to ensure its security. Despite being a close ally of the United States under the U.S.-Japan Security Treaty, Japan has maintained a robust defense posture, investing in advanced military technology and capabilities
Japan aims to deter potential aggressors and maintain its security and sovereignty without relying solely on external alliances.
security dillema theory
the ultimate source of the security dilemma is anarchy—the lack of “a higher unity”; an immediate cause of the security dilemma is states' uncertainty and fears about each other's intentions to do harm under anarch
buck passing - Syrian civil war
Buck-passing in international relations refers to a strategy where states seek to avoid taking responsibility for addressing a particular issue or challenge by passing it on to other actors, often through diplomatic maneuvering or strategic calculations.
syrian civil war
Blame-Shifting: Throughout the conflict, all parties involved, including the Assad regime, opposition groups, and external backers, engaged in blame-shifting by attributing responsibility for the violence, atrocities, and humanitarian suffering to their adversaries or to external actors.
HIICR definition of conflict
High conflict: intense emotions, polarization, and escalation of hostilities —> deep-rooted grievances, identity issues, or perceived existential threats, leading to heightened tensions and the potential for violence
Intense Conflict (IC): sustained hostility, active confrontation, and significant levels of violence. While not as extreme as high-conflict situations, intense conflicts still involve serious threats to security, stability, and human well-being.
Intractable conflict: deep-seated structural, cultural, or historical factors that make resolution exceptionally difficult, parties entrenched in their positions and resistant to compromise.
Chronic Conflict (CR): Chronic conflicts are long-standing disputes or tensions that persist over time without necessarily escalating to intense levels of violence. not as threatening as high or intractable conflict
Routine conflict: everyday disagreements, disputes, or tensions that are inherent in social interactions and organizational dynamics. These conflicts are typically low in intensity and can be managed through established conflict resolution mechanisms, such as negotiation
territorial conflicts
reasons:
deep rooted histories, national identity
control over territories give significant military power or geostrategic advantages
economic resources: Territories rich in resources like minerals, oil, or natural gas are particularly contested.
trade routes: controlling major maritime trade paths and chokepoints
interest based conflicts
economic interests drive parties to compete for resources, market dominance and economic control
RESOURCE ALLOCATIOn
trade disputes: protectionism, imposing tarrifs and creating trade barriers
foreign investment conflict
social interests: aspirations, needs and identities of social groups
labour disputes: over wages and rights and working conditions
group right: ethnic or religious groups seeking recognition rights and autonomy
political interest based conflicts
ideaological conflict
Involves disputes originating from opposing sets of beliefs, values, or ideologies
examples: cold war (capitalism vs socialism), crusades, israeli-palestinian conflict
types of idealogical conflict
political: system of beliefs outlining how a society should operate, influencing governance, policy, and social structure.
cold war
arab springs
Economic Ideology: Shapes views on economic policy and management, including capitalism, socialism, and mixed economies
globalisation vs economic nationalism: essentially is the debate over global free trade vs supporters of protective tariffs and national industries
capitalism vs socialism
religious ideaologies: crusades and the sunnia vs shia muslim conflict
identity based conflict
These conflicts arise when individuals or groups perceive their identity as being threatened or marginalised by others.
arise from differences in social identities like ethnicity, nationality, race, language and religion,
come from historical roots, social and cultural factors and political and economic inequalities (exclusion of a specific minority from political decisions)
just war theory- jus ad bellum
jus ad bellum: criteria for going to war
just cause: a legitimate reason
legitimate authority
right intention: purpose of war should be to secure peace for all parties involved
probability of success: shouldn’t be futile
last resort
proportionality: expected benefits of waging war must be proportional to the harms or costs likely to be incurred
just war theory- jus in bello
jus in bello- conduct in war
distinction: parties to a conflict to distinguish between combatants and non-combatants, as well as between military objectives and civilian objects. this is done to minimise harm to civilians and civilian infrastructure
proportionality: ones power isnt disproportional to the other in terms of armed forces and harm to civilians
humanity: requires parties to a conflict to refrain from inflicting unnecessary suffering or harm on combatants and non-combatants alike.
prohibition of certain weapons: prohibits the use of certain weapons or tactics that are considered inherently indiscriminate or excessively harmful, such as chemical weapons, biological weapons, and certain types of landmines
Responsibility to Protect (R2P)
Emerged from the 2005 UN World Summit, where world leaders agreed to the principle that when national governments fail to safeguard their citizens from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, or crimes against humanity, the international community has a responsibility to protect.
criticism of humanitarian intervention
Violation of Sovereignty: Critics argue that humanitarian interventions are often a violation of the principles of state sovereignty and non-interference, essential pillars of the international system
Hidden Agendas: There is concern that states might use humanitarian justifications to pursue broader geopolitical or economic interests.
culturally condoned violence
acts of violence accepted or endorsed by a society due to deep rooted religious and cultural beliefs
ex: honour killings, female genital mutilation, forced marriages, witch hunts and tribal warfare
ethical dilemma in responding to culturally condoned violence
cultural autonomy and protecting human rights
moral imperative to intervene in practices that involve severe violence against women
external interventions can be perceived as cultural imperialism, disrespecting and undermining local traditions and sovereignty.
hence, key lies in a respectful, informed approach that involves local communities in finding solutions, rather than imposing external values.
greed vs grievance theory
greed driven conflicts: pursuit of material wealth, power and resources - self interest is most important
economic gains or territory and resource exploitation
grievance driven conflicts: deep seated grievances, historical injustices and perceived wrongs
A strong sense of injustice, oppression, or discrimination
Policymakers and peacekeepers must adopt a multifaceted approach, acknowledging both greed and grievance, to successfully navigate the complexities of conflict resolution
unipolarity
One great power (hegemon) exists which cannot be challenged militarily
Long term conflict may result as others seek to remove power
▪ Truly global hegemons are extremely rare
▪ Hegemon are more likely to exist at a regional level rather than global level
hegemonic stability theory
The theory suggests that a hegemon, or dominant power, can provide stability by serving as a provider of public goods, enforcing rules and norms, and facilitating cooperation among states.
bipolarity
bipolar system, where power is balanced between two major powers, interstate wars may occur due to competition and rivalry between the two poles.
proxy wars
multipolarity
many powers competing each other
democratic peace theory
Some theorists believe that democracy itself promotes peace
▪ Conflict between democratic states are rare
▪ Fairer balance of power and distribution of wealth and resources
▪ Internal stability reduces potential sources of grievance
▪ Promotes dispute resolutions through democratic and not violent means
peacekeeping
Stopping violent conflict and creating negative peace
og case of vioelnce not solved
peacekeeping
Sustaining negative peace to allow positive peace to be built
Independent peacekeepers will start to intervene in ceasefire
peacebuilding
Building of sustainable, positive peace and long-term conflict resolutions
Incudes stabilization efforts to build longer-lasting peace and security
Truth and Reconciliation Commissions
▪ Aim to expose the wrongdoings of all those involved in a conflict
▪ Promotes forgiveness and understanding through the exposure
▪ Involves accepting the situation that it is (status quo)
▪ Agreeing and publicizing accounts of the conflict
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