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Ultimate AP BIOLOGY (cont.)
Element
Substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means.
Trace elements
Elements required by an organism only in very small quantities, e.g., iron (Fe), iodine (I), copper (Cu).
Atom
The unit of life and the building blocks of the physical world.
Proton
Positively charged particle found in the nucleus of an atom.
Neutron
Uncharged particle found in the nucleus of an atom.
Electron
Negatively charged particle that orbits the nucleus of an atom.
Isotope
Atoms that have the same number of protons but differ in the number of neutrons.
Compound
Consists of two or more elements held together by chemical bonds.
Ionic bond
Bond formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another.
Ions
Charged forms of atoms.
Covalent bond
Bond formed when electrons are shared between atoms.
Non-polar covalent bond
Bond where electrons are shared equally between atoms.
Polar covalent bond
Bond where electrons are shared unequally.
Hydrogen bonds
Weak chemical bonds that form when a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to one atom is attracted to another atom.
Cohesion
The tendency of water molecules to stick together.
Adhesion
The tendency of water molecules to stick to other substances.
Capillary action
Ability of water to rise up through roots, trunks, and branches of trees due to cohesion and adhesion.
Surface tension
The tension at the surface of water caused by cohesive forces.
Acid
A solution that contains a lot of hydrogen ions (H+).
Base
A solution that releases hydroxide ions (OH–) when added to water.
Neutral pH
A pH level of 7, which indicates equal concentration of hydrogen and hydroxide ions.
pH scale
A scale from 1 to 14 used to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
Organic molecules
Molecules that contain carbon.
Inorganic compounds
Molecules that do not contain carbon.
Polymers
Chains of building blocks in macromolecules.
Monomers
Individual building blocks of a polymer.
Dehydration synthesis
Process of forming polymers by losing a water molecule.
Hydrolysis
Process of breaking down polymers into monomers using water.
Carbohydrates
Organic compounds containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, usually in a 1:2:1 ratio.
Monosaccharides
Single sugar molecules, e.g., glucose and fructose.
Disaccharides
Sugars formed by the bond of two monosaccharides, e.g., maltose.
Glycosidic linkage
The bond formed between two monosaccharides when they join together
Polysaccharides
Complex carbohydrates made of many monosaccharides.
Starch
A polysaccharide that stores sugar in plants.
Glycogen
A polysaccharide that stores sugar in animals.
Cellulose
A structural polysaccharide made of β-glucose, important in plant cell walls.
Chitin
A polymer of β-glucose, serves as a structural molecule in fungi and arthropods.
Proteins
Macromolecules that play important roles in structure, function, and regulation of tissues and organs.
Amino acids
Building blocks of proteins, containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
Polypeptide
A chain of amino acids joined by peptide bonds.
Peptide bond
The bond formed between two amino acids linking them; forming a peptide
Enzymes
Biological catalysts that speed up reactions by lowering activation energy.
Substrate
The molecule upon which an enzyme acts.
Active site
The region of an enzyme where the substrate binds.
Induced-fit model
Concept that enzymes change shape to accommodate substrates.
Cofactors
Molecules that assist enzymes in catalyzing reactions, can be organic or inorganic.
Enzyme specificity
The selectivity of an enzyme for a particular substrate.
Competitive inhibition
Inhibition where a substance competes with the substrate for the active site of an enzyme.
Allosteric inhibition
Inhibition where a molecule binds to a site other than the active site, changing the enzyme's shape.
Cell cycle
The series of phases that a cell undergoes from one division to another.
The life cycle of a cell; including the processes of interphase and mitosis
Mitosis
The process of cell division resulting in two identical daughter cells.
Interphase
The phase of the cell cycle where the cell grows and replicates its DNA.
G1 phase
The first stage of interphase where the cell grows.
S phase
The stage of interphase where DNA replication occurs.
G2 phase
The second stage of interphase where the cell prepares for mitosis.
Cyclins
Regulatory proteins that control cell cycle progression.
CDK (Cyclin-dependent kinase)
Enzymes that, when activated, promote cell cycle progression.
Apoptosis
Programmed cell death.
Oncogenes
Mutated genes that can induce cancer.
Tumor suppressor genes
Genes that prevent the formation of tumors by regulating cell division.
Photosynthesis
The process by which light energy is converted into chemical energy in plants.
Cellular respiration
Process of breaking down sugar to produce ATP.
Glycolysis
First stage of cellular respiration that breaks down glucose into pyruvic acid.
Acetyl-CoA
A crucial molecule in cellular respiration formed from pyruvic acid.
Krebs cycle (Citric acid cycle)
Stage of cellular respiration that processes acetyl-CoA to produce energy carriers.
Electron transport chain
A series of protein complexes that transfer electrons to produce ATP.
Chemiosmosis
Process of ATP production driven by a proton gradient across a membrane.
ATP
Adenosine triphosphate, the primary energy carrier in cells.
NADH
An electron carrier produced during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.
FADH2
An electron carrier produced during the Krebs cycle.
Fermentation
Process that occurs when oxygen is not present, allowing glycolysis to continue.
Chemotaxis
Movement of organisms in response to chemical stimuli.
Signal transduction
The process by which a signal is transmitted to the inside of a cell.
Ligands
Signaling molecules that bind to receptors to trigger a response.
Homeostasis
The set of conditions under which living things can successfully survive.
Negative feedback pathway
A feedback loop that inhibits a process to maintain homeostasis.
Positive feedback pathway
A feedback loop that stimulates a process.
Feedback inhibition
A negative feedback pathway that inhibits the process of a metabolic pathway
Interphase
The period from one cell division to the next, with stages G1, S, and G2.
Sister chromatids
Identical copies of a chromosome that are joined at the centromere.
Prophase
The first stage of mitosis where chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope disappears.
Metaphase
The stage of mitosis where chromosomes align at the metaphase plate.
Anaphase
The stage of mitosis where sister chromatids are pulled apart.
Telophase
The final stage of mitosis where two new nuclei form.
Cytokinesis
The division of the cytoplasm to form two distinct daughter cells.
Cancer
Abnormal cell growth leading to tumors and spread to other parts of the body.
Proto-oncogene
A normal gene that can become an oncogene due to mutations.
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