The Civil Rights Movement (1945 - 1965)

Reconstruction Era (1865-1877)

Period following the Civil War, saw the introduction of the 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments, which were aimed at securing freedom and equality.

13th Amendment (1865)

Abolished slavery

14th Amendment (1868)

Granted citizenship and equal protection under the law

15th Amendment

Guaranteed voting rights regardless of race

End of Reconstruction in 1877

Led to the rise of Jim Crow, enforced racial segregation and discrimination

Jim Crow Laws

A system of state and local laws that enforced racial segregation in the Southern US, lasting from the late 19th century until the civil rights movement

• Ex. Plessy v Ferguson (1896): Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the “separate but equal” doctrine

Sharecropping

A system where Black farmers rented land with white landowners paying with a share of their crops. This often led to perpetual debt.

Peonge

A form of debt slavery where individuals were forced to work to pay off debts.

Convict Lease System

Prisoners, mostly African Americans, were leased to private companies for labor under brutal conditions.

• Ex. The Alabama prison system leased convicts to the US Steel, generating significant revenue while prisoners endured horrific conditions

• These systems were designed to exploit Black labor while maintaining white economic dominance

The Ku Klux Klan (KK)

Founded in 1866 in Pulaski, TN, by six former Confederate soldiers which was initially a social club but evolved to use violence to intimidate African Americans, other minorities, and their allies.

Lynching

Murder for an alleged offense without legal trial

• Common tactic by KKK with thousands of documented cases between 1880 and 1950

Race Riots

Often targeted prosperous Black communities, resulting in massive loss of life and property

• Ex. The Tulsa Race Massacre of 1921 - destroyed the flourishing community of Greenwood (Black Wall Street)

• Ex. Red Summer of 1919 - series of 25 race riots in Chicago. The precursor to these riots began with a white man stoning a Black youth for swimming in the “white section” of Lake Michigan. The police refused to arrest the white man which led to great protest and fighting and by the end of it, 23 African Americans had died and 1,000 Black families were homeless.

Sexual violence was often used as a tool of racial oppression

• White men often raped Black women with impunity, reinforcing racial and gender hierarchies.

• Sexual violence continued into the civil rights era, targeting activists and ordinary citizens

  • Ex. Lynching was “justified” by KKK members who claimed that African Americans were flirting with them or raped them. Examples include, the arrest of Dick Rowland leading to the Tulsa Massacre (1921) and the murder of Emmett Till for allegedly “whistling” (1955)

Poll Taxes

Fees required to vote, which many Black citizens could not afford

Literacy Tests

Unfair and often impossible tests used to disqualify Black voters

• IN AL a literacy test might ask an African American to interpret a complex legal document, while a white voter might be asked to read a simple sentence

Grandfather Clause

Allowed those whose ancestors voted before the Civil War to bypass poll taxes and literacy tests, effectively excluding Black voters

White Primary

Primary election in which only white voters were allowed to participate, effectively excluding African Americans from the political process

• In 1944, Smith v. Allwright struck down the white primary system in Texas

Legal discrimination was reinforced through both legislation and court decisions

• The Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) decision establishing the “separate but equal” doctrine, legitimizing segregation

• Jim Crow laws - mandating segregation in schools, transportation, and public facilities

• The Civil Rights Cases (1883) weakened federal protection against racial discrimination

  • African Americans were forced to use separate, inferior facilities, from water fountains to train cars

NAACAP

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People was founded in 1909 to fight for civil rights through the legal system

Guinn v. United States (1915)

Struck down Grandfather Clause

Black newspapers (Ex. The Chicago Defender, The Pittsburgh Courier), churches, and other organizations played crucial roles in mobilizing resistance.

• NAACP legal strategy laid the groundwork for later victories (ex. Brown v. Board (1954)

• NAACP legal efforts planted seeds that would eventually grow into the Civil Rights Movement

The mid-20th century saw significant advancements in civil rights

• The Civil Rights Act of 1964 outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin

• The Voting Rights Act of 1965 eliminated many barriers to voting, including literacy tests

  • The Selma to Montgomery marches in 1965 highlighted the need for voting rights legislation, which led to this act

• The Fair Housing Act (1968) prohibited discrimination in housing

**Enforcing these laws was still a challenge

Grassroots activism

When ordinary people take collective action to spark change

Examples of grassroots activism

• The Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956) lasted 381 days and led to the desegregation of public buses

• The Freedom Rides (1961) challenged segregation in interstate bus travel

• Sit-ins, voter registration drives, and other direct action campaigns organized by the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)

What was the first freedom ride in 1961?

JFK civil rights groups tested the President’s commitment to bettering African American lives by taking public transportation from DC to New Orleans through the deep south, one group by bus, and one group by train.

What was the philosophy behind the Freedom Rides?

Create a “crisis” and test to see how JFK reacts and his genuine commitment to the Civil Rights Movement

What were some fears behind the freedom rides?

• Not all activists agreed with the methodology because it was dangerous

• The Cold War had introduced nuclear weapons that could be used on the riders

• Fear of communism, and arrests based on political accusations

What happened May 14, 1961?

• In Anniston Alabama, 30-50 armed racists stormed the freedom riders bus attacking the passengers and slitting their tires.

• After attempting to continue the voyage to Birmingham, 40 cars followed them, blocking the highways.

• A mob then emerged attacking the bus and the passengers by throwing a bomb into the bus.

• Those on the trains were attacked by the KKK in which they also killed reporters and innocent bystanders

How did the first freedom ride end?

Bus drivers out of fear for their lives refused to continue and the riders were flown from Birmingham to New Orleans

What were the outcomes of the first and second freedom rides?

On September 22, 1961, segregation on interstate travel was banned (this law was enacted on November 1). However, Civil Rights Movements from the government was not achieved.

When did the Montgomery Bus Boycott start/end?

• December 1955 - 1956

• First community action bringing nationwide attention and first large sustained Civil Rights movement in the south

What were the events leading up to the boycott?

• MLK created the Southern Christian Leadership Council which would lead many important protests to come

• 1946 NAACP argued that bus segregation was unconstitutional and the Supreme Court agreed

• 1947 CORE conducted freedom rides leading to numerous arrests

• 1953 bus boycott in Louisiana led to ½ integration

What is Rosa Park’s history with the NAACP?

• 1943 Parks refused to exit the bus and enter through the rear door, so she was physically escorted from the bus and unable to ride it.

• She then joined the NAACP and was elected Montgomery chapter secretary.

What were the origins of the Montgomery Bus Boycott?

• It was the same driver who refused her service 12 years ago that arrested her for refusing to give up her seat to a white man in 1955.

• It began as a one day boycott (Monday December 15, 1955 that no African Americans would board the buses while leaders presented their demands.

What did the white opposition do in retalliation?

• Bombed MLK’s house on 2/1/1956 - killing his wife and daughter

• Bombed E.D. Nixon’s house on 2/2/1956

• Communist conspiracy charges on 90 boycott leaders

• Tried to stop the boycott on November 13 by banning carpooling

When did the boycotts end?

• 1 YEAR later city leaders ended segregation in the bus systems and implemented the ruling of Aurelia S. Browder et al v. WA Gayle

  • However, this did not stop the violence. The white opposition shot through buses, attacked Black girls, and on 1/10/1957 four churches and two Black homes were bombed

What was the lasting impact of the boycotts?

• It EMPOWERED African Americans to make change, and showed a united African American community that could change Jim Crow.

• It elevated MLK as a leader

• Sparked the creation of the SCLC which had a big role later on

The Greensboro Sit-Ins

Began in 1960 when four Black college students sat at a segregated lunch counter, this sparked several similar protests across the south

Which were the 3 main eras the KKK emerged in?

• Reconstruction (1865 - 1877)

• The 1920s

• The Civil Rights Era (1950s - 1960s)

  • Each iteration of the Klan reflected the social, political, and economic anxieties of white Americans during these times

The KKK influence extended beyond the south reaching into northern and western states where it targeted…

• African Americans

• Immigrants

• Catholics

• Jews

• LGBTQ+

• Other minorities

• Labor unions

After reconstruction, the KKK was revived in 1915 by William J. Simmons inspired by the film…

“The Birth of a Nation” which glorified the Reconstruction-era Klan

***COULD BE USED FOR A PROPAGANDA ESSAY

After the 20s, the KKK revived in response to the Civil Rights Movement

Which was smaller, but much more violent

• The KKK was responsible for numerous bombings, assassinations, and acts of terror during this period, including the bombing of 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham AL in 1963 which killed four African American girls

The KKK worked to maintain segregation through:

• Bombings: homes, churches, and civil rights meeting places

• Assassinations: killing activists like Medgar Evers

• Collaboration with law enforcement: many police officers and officials were KKK members or sympathizers

  • Made lynching easier with limited to zero punishment

The KKK backlash against social and political change is…

• A pattern of resistance to progress which is a recurring theme in American history.

• The KKK actions highlight the importance of federal intervention in protecting civil rights

Disenfranchisement

The denial of the right to vote

Violence and intimidation were used along side legal methods

• The KKK and other groups used terror to keep African Americans from voting

• Lynchings and mob violence created a climate of fear

• In 1873, over 100 African Americans were killed in Colfax Louisiana for defending their right to vote

Several Supreme Court cases weakened federal protections for African American voting rights

• U.S v. Reese (1875): allowed states to use non-racial criteria for disenfranchisement

• U.S v. Cruikshank (1876): weakened federal enforcement of voting rights

Impact of Disenfranchisement

• Political Exclusion: African Americans were effectively removed from the political process

• Economic Exploitation: without political power, they were vulnerable to systems like sharecropping

• Social Marginalization: disenfranchisement reinforced racial hierarchies

The Civil Rights Movement of 1950s and 60s sought to

End disenfranchisement

The Voting Rights Act of 1965

Was a landmark that prohibited racial discrimination in voting

• This act outlawed literacy tests and provided federal oversight of election in discriminatory areas

  • The Selma to Montgomery marches in 1965 highlighted the struggle for voting rights and led to the passage of the Voting Rights Act

While overt racial discrimination in voting is illegal, modern forms still exist

• Voter ID Laws - require specific identification that some groups find harder to obtain

• Felon discrimination - laws that prevent former felons from voting, but later added a requirement to pay all fines and fees first

  • In 2018, FL passed a law allowing former felons to vote, but later added a requirement to pay all fines and fees first

After the Civil War, the 13th amendment abolished slavery, but southern states quickly enacted laws to maintain white supremacy

Jim Crow laws were established in the late 19th century, mandating racial segregation in all public facilities, including schools

• These laws were based on the false premise that all facilities could be “separate but equal”

Plessy v. Ferguson

• In 1896 the Supreme Court case, Plessy v. Ferguson upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the separate but equal doctrine

• This decision provided legal justification for segregated schools, which received far less funding and resources for Black students

• Segregation was not just a social practice; it was a legal enforced system of racial equality

The NAACP

• was founded in 1909 to fight racial discrimination through legal means

• Charles Hamilton Houston, a brilliant lawyer and mentor to Thurgood Marshall developed a strategy to challenge segregation in education

• focused on graduate and professional schools first, believing that obvious inequalities would be easier to prove in court

  • In the 1938 case Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada, the supreme court ruled that Missouri had to provide equal law school education for Black students, whether by integrating or building a separate law school

• legal strategy involved a series of cases that gradually shipped away at the “separate but equal” doctrine

Sweatt v. Painter (1950)

The supreme court ruled that a hastily crated Black law school was not equal to the UT Law School

McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950)

The court ruled that segregating a Black grad student within a white university violated his right to equal education

Who paved the foundation for the Brown v. Board of Education case?

• Brown was not a sudden shift. The NAACP paved the way in overturning Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) with leadership by Charles Hamilton Houston.

  • Who was so significant he became known as “the man who killed Jim Crow”

• The NAACP (1930) was focused on getting equal funding for African American Children rather than integrating the two races.

  • The NAACP focused on: Plessy v. Ferguson (overturning), education, lynching, equal rights, equal funding.

What is judicial restraint?

• Reluctance to overturn a long-standing precedent (in this case, legalized segregation)

• Charles Hamilton Houston realized the only way the courts would listen was to bring them a client with standing for a lawsuit

  • Donald Murray (1935) - UMD law would not consider him because he was black. The “equal” in Plessy v. Ferguson could be tested.

  • Thurgood Marshall repped Murray in SCOTUS case, Murray v. Maryland.

    • Murray won!!

How did the NAACP capture US attention once more?

• They chose a case they knew they would lose and decided to appeal the ruling to the supreme court

  • Gaines v. Missouri

Cases paved the way for the overturn of Plessy v. Ferguson and the two final cases before Brown v. Board of Education

• Sweat v. Painter (1950)

• McLaurin v. Oklahoma State (1950)

In Brown v. Board the plaintiffs were elementary schoolers

• Mushed 5 cases together to be called “Brown v. Board of Education”

  • Briggs v. Elliot

  • Davis v. County

  • Gebhart v. Belton

  • Brown v. Board

  • Bolling v. Sharp

Who was the chief justice ruling on Brown v. Board

Earl Warren

• May 1954 - segregation in all schools was inherently unequal and all language used in Plessy v. Ferguson was unconstitutional and rejected

What was the immediate opposition to the ruling like?

• Racist states attempted to find loops holes to continue segregation

• In the southern confederate states they prohibited their taxes from going to segregated schools

• Virginia had massive resistance especially

Interpose

States could place themselves between the federal government and the citizens of the state when state officials felt the federal government had exceeded its constitutional powers

What did Virginia governor Stanley do?

• Said that VA would not allow integrated public schools within the state

• Threatened closure of any school that integrated

• State funding be cut off from desegregated districts

• Publicly campaigned for segregation

• The legislation and accompanying government actions became known as massive resistance

What did Virginia governor Almond (the successor of Stanley) do?

• Closed public schools instead of integrating them

  • 13,000 (including white students) could now not attend school

• Many racists supported Almond, but some of the white community feared that defying federal courts would harm the state’s economy

“freedom of choice” where parents had to appeal to a “pupil placement board” for their kid to be enrolled keeping most schools still segregated

was abolished in 1964

When did schools begin to desegregate?

HS = 1957

Elementary = 1963

What was the CCC?

Capital Citizens’ Council - a racist group formed on the basis of anti-integration and sponsored a female racist group known as the MLCHS

How did the Little Rock Race Riots begin?

• African American students were met with an angry crowd and turned away by the Arkansas National Guard when trying to attend Central High School on Sept 4, 1957

• On Sept 23, 1957, they tried again. 9 African American students were hounded and harassed out of the school by one thousand angry white racists

How did the federal government respond?

• Eisenhower took action. The US army escorted and remained with the Little Rock 9 for the whole year.

• The state closed many schools to prevent integration.

• SCOTUS ruled in Cooper v. Aaron that Central had to remain open

NAACP by Act 115

Voided by federal courts

NAACP Act 10

Overturned in Shelton v. Tucker

Economic Discrimination

Refers to unfair treatment in areas like employment, wages, and access to resources based on characteristics such as race, gender, or class

Social Discrimination

Involves prejudicial treatment in social interactions, access to services, and participation in community life.

Examples of economic and social discrimination

• Racial segregation in the US

• Caste-based discrimination in India

The legacy of slavery in the US extends far beyond its abolition in 1865. After the Civil War, new systems emerged to maintain racial inequity.

• Sharecropping became a common agricultural system where formerly enslaved people rented land from white landowners, paying a share of their crops.

  • This system kept African Americans in a cycle of debt and poverty, as landowners often manipulated accounts to ensure perpetual debt

• Peonage, or debt slavery, was technically illegal, but widely practiced, forcing people to work to pay off debts they could never clear

• These practices were supported by local laws and ignored by federal authorities, allowing them to persist for decades

• Many sharecroppers ended each tear owning more than they eared, trapping them in a cycle of poverty that resembled slavery

While economic discrimination affected access to resources and opportunities, social discrimination enforced racial hierarchy through segregation and violence

• Jim Crow laws in the US mandated racial segregation in public spaces, education, transportation, etc.

• Lynching and racial violence were used to terrorize African Americans and reinforce white supremacy

• Social customs dictated everyday interactions, such as requiring Black people to yield the sidewalk to white people

• These practices were not just social norms but were confided into law and upheld by the legal system

Legal systems played a crucial role in maintaining both economic and social discrimination

• The US supreme court case Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) established the “separate but equal” doctrine, legitimizing segregation

• Southern states used legal loopholes to disenfranchise Black voters through literacy tests, poll taxes, and grandfather clauses

• Laws were written in race-neutral language but enforced in racially biased ways

• Challenges to these laws were often met with violence and intimidation, discouraging legal resistance

The civil rights movement of the mid-20th century marked a turning point in the struggle against economic social discrimination

• The Civil Rights Act of 1964 - outlawed segregation in public places and banned employment discrimination

• The Voting Rights Act of 1965 - eliminated many barriers to Black voting such as literacy tests

• Activists used nonviolent protests strategies, such as sit-ins, marches, boycotts to draw attention to injustice

• Media coverage of violence responses to peaceful protests helped galvanize public support for change

• The Montgomery Bus Boycott (1955-1956) began after Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat to a white passenger, leading to a Supreme Court decision that desegregated public buses

Efforts to address economic and social discrimination take many forms, from policy initiatives to grassroots activism

• Legal reforms, such as anti-discrimination laws and affirmative action policies aim to create equal opportunities

• Education and awareness programs work to challenge stereotypes and promote understanding

• Community organizations provide support and resources to marginalized groups

Legacy of the Jim Crow

• The Jim Crow laws were a system of racial segregation and discrimination that dominated the American south from the late 19th century until the mid-20th century

• Their legacy continues to shape the US in profound ways, influencing social, economic, and political dynamics

Origins and Implementation of Jim Crow

• Jim Crow laws emerged after the Reconstruction Era (1865-1977), a period when African Americans made significant political and social gains

• These laws institutionalized racial segregation in public spaces, schools, transportation, and more, under the guise of “separate but equal”

• The Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) Supreme Court decision upheld segregation providing legal justification for these discriminatory practice

Social and Cultural Impact of Jim Crow

• Jim Crow laws entrenched racial segregation in housing, education, and public life

• Even after legal segregation ended, de facto segregation persisted through practices like relining and discriminatory lending

Economic Consequences

• Jim Crow laws denied African Americans access to quality education, jobs, and property ownership

• This created a racial wealth gap that persists today, with Black families holding significantly less wealth than white families

Political Ramifications of Jim Crow

• Jim Crow laws disenfranchised African Americans through poll taxes, literacy tests, and intimidation

• Although the Voting Rights Act of 1965 addressed these issues, modern voter suppression tactics, such as strict ID laws and gerrymandering echo Jim Crow-era practices

Challenging Jim Crow

• The CRM of the 50s and 60s dismantled Jim Crow laws through landmark legislation like the CRA of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965

• Activists like MLK Jr, Rosa Parks, and organizations such as the NAACP played pivotal roles in this struggle

Understanding Systemic Racism

• The legacy of Jim Crow helps explain why racial disparities persist in wealth, education, and political power

• It highlights the need for policies that address these inequalities, such as reparations or affirmative action

Inspiring Modern Activism

• The CRM successes and challenges provide lessons for contemporary movements advocating for racial and social justice

• Understanding this history empowers individuals to recognize and combat systemic inequality

Impact on Individuals

• Social and Psychological Effects

  • Daily Humiliation: African Americans faced constant reminders of their second-class status through segregation in public spaces, such as schools, buses, and restaurants

  • In Montgomery, Alabama, Rosa Parks’ refusal to give up her bus seat highlighted the indignities African Americans endured daily psychological trauma

    • The treat violence, including lynching, policie brutality, created a climate of fear and anxiety

      • The murder of Emmett Till in 1955 for allegedly whistling at a white woman exemplified the extreme racial violence that terrorized Black communities

  • Internalized Oppression - segregation and discrimination led some African Americans to internalize feelings of inferiority, affecting their self-esteem and aspirations

Economic Impact

• Limited Opportunities - African Americans were often restricted to low paying jobs, such as sharecropping or domestic work, with little chance for advancement

• Exploitation - systems like peonage and convict leading trapped many in cycles of debt and forced labor

• Wealth Gap - discriminatory practices, such as redlining and exclusion from labor unions, widened the economic gap between Black and white Americans

Political Disenfranchisement

• Voting Barriers - poll taxes, literacy tests, and the “grandfather clause” effectively disenfranchised African Americans in the South

• Violence and Intimidation - those who attempted to vote faced threats, violence, or even murder

  • The Colfax Massacre of 1973 - over 100 African Americans were killed for defending their right to vote, ex. the extreme measures used to suppress Black political participation

Personal Sacrifices

• Physical and emotional toll - activists faced arrest, violence, and even death

• Economic hardship - many lost jobs or faced economic retaliation for their activism

• Family strain - the constant threat of violence placed immense stress on activists’ families

  • MLK Jr was arrested multiple times and ultimately assassinated in 1968

  • Rosa Parks struggled to find work after the Montgomery Bus Boycott, endangering his wife and child

  • John Lewis, who was beaten during teh Freedom Rides, later became a US Congressman and a champion of civil rights

Resistance and Backlash

• Massive Resistance - many white Americans, particularly in the South, opposed desegregation and civil rights reforms

• Political Actions - southern politicians enacted laws to circumvent desegregation, such as Virginia’s Massive Resistance policy

• Violence and Intimidation: Groups like the KKK used terror to maintain white supremacy

Changing Perspectives

• Growing Support - the movement also inspired many white Americans to join the fight for civil rights

• Allies - individuals like Viola Liuzza and Andre Goodman risked their lives to support the movement

• Moral Awakening - televised images of violence against peaceful protestors such as the Birmingham campaign shocked the nation and swayed public opinion

Legal and Political Changes

• Landmark Legislation - the movement led to the passage of critical laws, including the CRA of ‘64 and the VRA of ‘65

• Judicial Precedents - ex. Brown v. Board dismantled the legal foundation of segregation

Social and Cultural Shifts

• Desegregation - of public spaces, schools, and workplaces became more integrated through challenges remained

• Cultural influence - the movement inspired art, music, and literature that celebrated African American identity and resilience

Non-violent Protest

• refers to the use of peaceful methods to achieve a social, political, or economic change

  • Relies on tactics such as boycotts, marches, sit-ins, and civil disobedience to challenge unjust systems without resorting to violence

Goals and Strategies of Freedom Summer (1964)

• Voter registration - register African American voters in Mississippi, where less than 7% were registered due to discrimination and intimidation

• Freedom schools - aimed to educate African Americans about their rights, teach literacy, and foster a sense of empowerment

The Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party

• created to challenge the all white Mississippi democratic party by sending an integration delegation to the DNC

• Diverse participation 0 over 1,000 volunteers, mostly white college students joined from the north with local African American activists

• Training and Preparation - volunteers underwent training in nonviolent resistance and were warned of the dangers they would face

  • The inclusion of white volunteers was strategic. Organizers believed that violence against white students would draw national attention and pressure on the federal government to act.