HMS - Health for individuals and communities

How did Hippocrates (ancient) define health?

Health as a state of bodily balance, achieved through behavioral and medicinal actions, stemming from the balance of four bodily fluids (black, yellow, phlegm, blood).

How does the World Health Organisation (WHO) define health?

“Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.”

How does the N.A.C.C.H.O define health?

‘Aboriginal health' as the physical, social, emotional, and cultural well-being of the entire Community, allowing individuals to reach full potential and fostering total community well-being. It is a whole-of-life view, including the life-death-life cycle.

What is the dynamic nature of health?

Health status can change dynamically throughout a person’s life, either acutely (minute-to-minute) or chronically (over a long period).

What are the five dimensions of health?

SPECS: Spiritual, Physical, Emotional, Cognitive, Social.

How does the concept of good health vary?

Good health varies based on individual circumstances, experiences, and perceptions. An older person, for instance, might feel 'healthy' if active and social daily, even with a chronic illness.

What is Epidemiology?

The study of how often disease occurs in different population groups and why.

What are the purposes of using Epidemiology?

used to:

• Picture population health.

• Identify patterns of disease, health, and inequity.

• Analyze resource use (e.g., health services/facilities).

• Determine needs for resources or policies.

• Allocate health resources across society.

• Evaluate disease control strategies and behaviors.

What is Mortality in Epidemiology?

The rate of death within a population.

What is Infant mortality in Epidemiology?

The rate of death for infants aged 0-1 years.

What is Morbidity in Epidemiology?

The rate of disease and illness within a population.

What is Prevalence in Epidemiology?

The number of existing cases of a condition in a population at a certain time.

What is Incidence in Epidemiology?

The number of new diagnoses of a condition over a specific period.

What is Distribution in Epidemiology?

The extent to which an illness or disease is spread throughout a population.

What is Life expectancy in Epidemiology?

The average period of time a person is expected to live from the day they’re born.

What are some common statistics used to measure health in Epidemiology?

• Births
• Deaths
• Hospitalizations
• Injury incidence
• Healthcare expenditure
• Days of work lost

What are the limitations of Epidemiology?

• Causal factors
• Quality of life
• Personal degree of impact of the illness
• Determinants of health
• Focuses on quantifiable ill health

What is the principle of Participation in Social Justice?

Emphasizes involving people in decisions affecting their lives.

What is the principle of Equity in Social Justice?

Acknowledges varying needs for good health, ensuring everyone has access to resources to achieve full potential, regardless of background.

What is the principle of Access in Social Justice?

Emphasizes ensuring all people have access to resources/opportunities for wellbeing.

What is the principle of Rights in Social Justice?

Refers to legal and human rights to healthcare.

How does Culture influence health (as a broader feature of society)?

Cultural practices and diets (e.g., Mediterranean diet) can be linked to lower rates of certain diseases like cardiovascular disease.

How does Affluence influence health (as a broader feature of society)?

Higher rates of mental health issues are often observed in socioeconomically disadvantaged communities.

How does Social cohesion influence health (as a broader feature of society)?

Support networks (e.g., mothers’ groups, group therapy) or community unity (e.g., post-disaster recovery) demonstrate social cohesion's positive impact on health and wellbeing.

How does Social inclusion influence health (as a broader feature of society)?

Australian policies/scholarships increasing ATSI representation in education (TAFE, university) and the workforce ensure equal opportunities, contributing to their wellbeing.

How do Political structures influence health (as a broader feature of society)?

Australia’s Medicare system, providing universal healthcare (e.g., free public hospital treatment, doctor fees), is a political structure significantly impacting health access and outcomes.

How does the Media influence health (as a broader feature of society)?

Media plays a crucial role in communicating vaccine information, directly influencing vaccination rates and public health outcomes.

How does Language influence health (as a broader feature of society)?

Providing healthcare information in various languages improves access and understanding for people of diverse cultural backgrounds.

How do Urban areas impact health (environmental factor)?

Urban residents (e.g., Sydney) may face higher pollution, decreased air quality, limited green spaces for exercise, increased fast food exposure, and lack social connection due to large populations.

How do Regional centres (example 1) impact health (environmental factor)?

Regional centers (e.g., Coffs Harbour) often have reduced air and light pollution, and more green spaces, encouraging active outdoor lifestyles and positive health outcomes.

How do Regional centres (example 2) impact health (environmental factor)?

Regional centers (e.g., Bourke) may face extreme climate change impacts (e.g., water scarcity), reducing farming capacity, leading to reduced income, hopelessness, and depression.

How does Geographic Location influence health (environmental factor)?

People who live in rural and remote parts of Australia generally have poorer health outcomes than those living in major cities.

How does Quality of air/water influence health (environmental factor)?

Poor air quality from vehicle/industry emissions increases risk of respiratory infections, asthma, bronchitis, and cardiovascular conditions.

How do Safe workplaces influence health (environmental factor)?

Rural/remote residents often travel long distances, increasing injury risk on country roads. Remoteness also hinders social support network creation/maintenance.

How does Community safety influence health (environmental factor)?

Safe individuals live higher quality, healthier lives and engage more in community. Safe communities have lower incidence and costs from injuries and violence.

How does Access to physical resources within a community influence health (environmental factor)?

Adequate access to physical resources (houses, shops, roads, parks) is crucial. Good public transport aids access to essential services (e.g., healthcare), reducing pollution, crashes, and congestion.

How do Migrants experience socioeconomic factors impacting health?

Migrants and refugees generally have lower health literacy and may face difficulty accessing services due to discrimination and language barriers.

How does Socioeconomic status (income) influence the health of young people?

For young people in full-time education, parental income directly affects spending on essentials (food, education, healthcare) and recreation (dining out, music lessons).

How does Educational attainment influence health?

Education (schools, universities, TAFE) provides young people with workforce skills and knowledge. Education quality is affected by institutional resources.

How does Employment status influence health?

Employment offers activity, positive identity, social connection, life control, and financial security. Unemployment can lead to stress, confidence loss, limited social contact, depression, and disempowerment, impacting emotional and social health.

How does Cultural background influence health (socioeconomic factor)?

Cultural background influences health beliefs/practices, accessibility (due to language barriers), diet and nutrition, and experiences of racism and discrimination.

How does Disability influence health (socioeconomic factor)?

Individuals with disabilities often face unique challenges in accessing healthcare, education, and employment opportunities.

How do Social networks influence health (socioeconomic factor)?

Social networks play a crucial role in shaping behaviors, attitudes, and access to support systems, and are essential for communicating health information.

How do Social expectations and attitudes influence health (socioeconomic factor)?

Social expectations and attitudes influence health behaviors, help-seeking, addressing concerns, and the value placed on one’s health.

How does The media influence health based on socioeconomic status?

Higher SES (income/education) leads to better access/analysis of media health information. Higher SES often exposes individuals to more health information and campaigns, fostering greater awareness and healthier behaviors. Campaigns should be inclusive and tailored to different SES groups.

How do health behaviors differ for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander People?

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are almost three times more likely to smoke but are more likely to meet physical activity guidelines.

How do health behaviors vary by Geographic Location?

More remote locations correlate with higher risky drinking, poor diet, and obesity. Methamphetamine use is higher remotely; cocaine/ecstasy use is higher in major cities.

How do health behaviors vary by Socioeconomic Status (SES)?

Individuals from lower SES are more likely to smoke, drink excessively, and have greater child screen time. High SES individuals are more likely to complete homework and spend leisure time on school-related activities/reading.

What are some biomedical factors influencing health?

• Genetics
• Blood pressure
• Blood glucose levels
• Physical impairment

How are 'young people' defined in this context?

Young people are generally defined as individuals between 12-24 years old, according to the NATIONAL YOUTH SURVEY 2010.

What are the periods of Human Development?

Prenatal Development (foetus → conception/birth)

Infancy & Toddlerhood (Newborn → First 2yrs of life)

Early Childhood (ages 2-6)

Middle Childhood (ages 6-11)

Adolescence (ages 12-18)

Early Adulthood (ages 20-40)

Middle Adulthood (ages 40-65)

Late Adulthood (ages 65+)

How does Family influence the health and wellbeing of young people?

Parental education, home language, and choices impact health. Low SES can be an intergenerational cycle, hindering children's escape.

How do Cultural influences affect the health and wellbeing of young people?

Family culture, heritage, and peer groups/cliques (e.g., surfers/skaters) significantly shape young people's health behaviors and attitudes.

How do Technological Influences affect the health and wellbeing of young people?

Technology impacts all aspects of young people's lives—socialization, education, shopping, transport, employment, information access—influencing their health and wellbeing.

What are the different generational cohorts?

Builders (1925-1945)

Boomers (1946-1964)

Gen X (1965-1979)

Gen Y (1980-1994)

Gen Z (1995-2009)

Gen Alpha (2010-2024)

Gen Beta (2025)

What is Self-efficacy and how does it enhance health?

Self-efficacy is self-confidence and belief in one's ability to complete a task or achieve a goal (e.g., mentoring, peer tutoring).

What is Health literacy and how does it enhance health?

Health literacy involves identifying useful information, fact-checking, combating myths, and educating youth on informed health decisions, empowering healthier choices.

What is Help-seeking behaviour and how does it enhance health?

Help-seeking behavior is young people actively accessing health services, requiring strong communication and health literacy to identify needs and seek support.

What is Problem-solving and how does it enhance health?

Problem-solving involves understanding, brainstorming outcomes, planning strategy, and evaluating solutions to navigate health challenges effectively.

What is Resilience and how does it enhance health?

Resilience is the ability to cope with difficult situations and bounce back from adversity, allowing individuals to maintain wellbeing despite challenges.

What are Coping skills and how do they enhance health?

Fostering an optimistic, growth mindset develops effective coping skills, managing stress and setbacks healthily.

What is Sense of purpose and how does it enhance health?

Young people volunteering in community can develop a sense of purpose, contributing to positive mental and social wellbeing.

What is Ethical behaviour and how does it enhance health?

Ethical behavior develops through environments promoting integrity, empathy, honesty, and respect, fostering positive relationships and a healthy community.

What is Connectedness and how does it enhance health?

Connectedness refers to a sense of belonging that comes from shared values, beliefs, and purpose within a community, which is vital for social and emotional wellbeing.

What is the role of the Commonwealth Government in addressing young people's health?

The Commonwealth Government addresses young people’s health by developing national strategies, coordinating, gathering research, providing funding, and organizing agencies (e.g., National Action Plan for the Health of Children and Young People 2020-2030).

What is the role of State/Territory governments in health?

State/Territory governments promote/deliver health, enact national legislation, and provide healthcare programs/facilities (e.g., hospitals). The ADVOCATE FOR CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE ACT 2014 in NSW is an example.

What is the role of Children and Young People with Disability Australia (CYDA)?

CYDA empowers children with disability, fostering educational opportunities, transforming attitudes, and addressing discrimination, abuse, and neglect.

What is the role of the Multicultural Youth Advocacy Network (MYAN)?

MYAN enables young people to be more active participants in Australian society by helping them overcome challenges.

What is the role of the National Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisation (NACCHO)?

NACCHO represents over 140 Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Services (ACCHS), run by Aboriginal/Torres Strait Islander communities, empowering Indigenous leadership in healthcare.

What is the role of Headspace?

Headspace is a non-profit organization that assists young people with a range of mental health and wellbeing issues.

What is an impact of organisations on young people's health through Communication?

Advocacy groups effectively communicate youth needs to policymakers. Despite improved communication, challenges like rising psychological distress, high Indigenous youth incarceration, and rising Indigenous youth suicide rates persist, indicating unmet needs.

What is the WHO definition of Health Promotion?

Health promotion is the process of enabling people to increase control over their health and its determinants, thereby improving health, as defined by WHO.

Describe the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander approach to health promotion.

This approach emphasizes culturally appropriate health promotion responsive to unique needs/values of Australian Indigenous communities. It focuses on genuine partnerships with First Nations People and their own healthcare models.

Provide examples of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander approach to health promotion.

Examples include 'Close the Gap' (First Nations health models), Ngangkari (traditional) healing, ACCHO (Aboriginal Community Controlled Health Organisations) providing culturally appropriate care, and First Nations COVID-19 management.

Describe the Biomedical model of health.

The biomedical model focuses on disease diagnosis, cure, and treatment. It views health as the absence of disease/biological malfunction, concentrating on physical/biological aspects, often overlooking sociocultural/socioeconomic factors.

Provide examples of the Biomedical model of health in practice.

Examples include X-rays/scans/blood tests for diagnosis; medicine/surgery for treatment; vaccinations (e.g., HPV vaccine) and less invasive surgery (e.g., keyhole) for recovery.

Describe the Sociocultural model of health.

This model recognizes health/illness are shaped by social, cultural, economic, and environmental determinants. It aims to reduce social inequity, empower individuals/communities, and enable healthcare access, forming a core of the Ottawa Charter and SDGs.

Provide an example of the Sociocultural model of health in practice.

Examples include federal initiatives like 'Girls, Make Your Move' (physical activity), 'Your Time in the Sun' (skin cancer reduction), National Bowel Cancer Screening, and 'B Street Smart' road safety program (youth education).

Describe the Salutogenic model of health.

The salutogenic model focuses on how/why people stay well, developing coping mechanisms to improve health. It recognizes external factors (e.g., wealth, self-belief) and emphasizes building a 'sense of coherence' to understand, manage, and find meaning in stressful life experiences.

Provide an example of the Salutogenic model of health in practice.

Examples include the strength-based PDHPE Curriculum promoting healthy lives, and children’s hospitals/schools/playgrounds designed to encourage play and happiness, supporting wellbeing.

Describe the Ecological model of health.

The ecological model emphasizes health is shaped by environmental, social, and psychological factors, viewing health within interconnected systems, not solely individually.

Provide an example of the Ecological model of health in practice.

The Maranguka Justice Reinvestment program in Bourke, NSW, addresses health through community-level social/environmental factors by building trust, identifying priorities, and implementing 'circuit breakers' to prevent crime.

What is the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)?

UNESCO was established to break cultural barriers and pursue lasting peace through education, sciences, culture, communication/information, addressing poverty and sustainable development.

What is Australia's involvement with UNESCO in health promotion?

Australia, a UNESCO member, reflects its involvement in health promotion by supporting equitable education access, using scientific knowledge for sustainable development, addressing social/ethical issues, supporting diversity/inclusion, and promoting information/communication access.

What is the World Health Organisation (WHO)?

The WHO works with NGOs, governments, advocates, and researchers globally for health equity. It uses an intersectoral approach, including health education, prevention (e.g., immunization), and emergency response (e.g., pandemics).

What is Australia's involvement with WHO in health?

Australia's WHO involvement helped establish its world-class Medicare, manage health threats (e.g., COVID-19 border security), increase life expectancy, and develop effective health promotion/policy.

What is the Ottawa Charter?

The Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion, developed by the World Health Organisation (WHO), is a document that provides a holistic and preventative framework for health promotion and action.

Describe the Advocate strategy of the Ottawa Charter.

The 'Advocate' strategy aims to place health on policymakers' agendas across all sectors and levels, ensuring legislation, policies, taxation, and organizational changes consider public health impact, making healthy choices easier.

Describe the Mediate strategy of the Ottawa Charter.

The 'Mediate' strategy involves bringing diverse interests (governmental, NGOs, industry) together across sectors to pursue health, reconciling conflicts for health equity.

Describe the Enable strategy of the Ottawa Charter?

The 'Enable' strategy empowers individuals and communities to control their health and its determinants, providing means and opportunities for healthier choices.

Describe the Building healthy public policy action area of the Ottawa Charter.

This action area places health on policymakers' agendas across all sectors/levels, ensuring legislation, policies, taxation, and organizational changes consider population health, making healthy choices easier. Responsible groups include governments, lobby groups, unions, and NGOs.

Describe the Creating supportive environments action area of the Ottawa Charter.

This action area fosters environments where people care for each other, communities, and the environment. It makes living, working, and playing spaces sources of good health; a global responsibility for governments, communities, employers, unions, and families.

Describe the Strengthening community action action area of the Ottawa Charter.

This action area empowers communities to 'own' and solve their specific health problems in partnership. It provides skills, knowledge, and tools for health empowerment. Responsible parties include schools, community leaders, governments, and interest groups.

Describe the Developing personal skills action area of the Ottawa Charter.

This action area aims to educate, provide health information, and improve decision-making, communication, and life skills. It supports individual personal/social development, enabling lifelong learning and coping with adversity. Action occurs in schools, homes, work, and community, facilitated by various bodies.

Describe the Reorienting health services action area of the Ottawa Charter.

This action area establishes a holistic attitude among health professionals, focusing on the whole person. It shifts from clinical/curative to preventive care, including research/training. Steps involve identifying/accessing services and moving from cure to prevention. Responsible parties include community groups, health professionals, institutions, and governments.

Why is Health Promotion and Community Partnership important?

Community engagement is crucial for understanding needs, cultural sensitivity, effective communication (addressing language barriers), empowering individuals/communities via involvement, and building stakeholder trust.

What are the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)?

The UN Sustainable Development Goals are a global action plan addressing major issues, focusing on 'People' (Equity, health, prosperity) and 'Planet' (Environment). The 17 SDGs promote collaboration, building on prior global efforts.

What is Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 1?

GOAL 1: To end poverty in all its forms, everywhere.

What is Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 2?

GOAL 2: To end hunger, achieve food security, improved nutrition, and promote sustainable agriculture.

What is Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 3?

GOAL 3: To ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all ages.