Key Assessment Study Guide

Theory

A broad explanation or framework for understanding phenomena, based on extensive research and evidence.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory.

Scientific Method

1. Ask a question: Identify a problem or phenomenon.

2. Do background research: Explore what’s already known.

3. Form a hypothesis: Develop a testable prediction.

4. Conduct an experiment: Test the hypothesis through controlled methods.

5. Analyze data: Use statistics to interpret results.

6. Draw conclusions: Determine whether the hypothesis is supported.

7. Report results: Share findings for replication.

Reliability

The consistency of a measurement over time.

Validity

The accuracy of a measurement.

Correlational Research Design

Examines relationships between variables without manipulation; correlation does not imply causation.

Descriptive Research Design

Observes and describes behaviors or phenomena without influencing them.

Experimental Research Design

Involves manipulation of one variable (Independent Variable) to observe its effect on another,(Dependent Variable) allowing for causal conclusions.

Experimental Group

Participants exposed to the treatment or independent variable.

Control Group

Participants not exposed to the treatment, serving as a baseline.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable manipulated by the researcher.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable measured to see the effect of the independent variable.

Generalizability (External Validity)

The extent to which findings can be applied to other populations, settings, or times.

Internal Validity

The degree to which an experiment is free from confounding variables.

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

Panels that review research proposals to ensure ethical standards are met.

Informed Consent

Participants must be fully informed about the study and agree to participate voluntarily.

Deception

Misleading participants about the study’s purpose, allowed only when necessary and justified.

Debriefing

Explaining the true purpose of the study to participants afterward.

Dendrites

Receive signals from other neurons.

Cell Body (Soma)

Processes information.

Axon

Transmits signals to other neurons or muscles.

Myelin Sheath

Insulates the axon to speed up signal transmission.

Axon Terminals

Release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons.

Action Potential

1. A stimulus causes the neuron's membrane to depolarize.

2. Sodium ions (Na⁺) flow in, making the inside positive.

3. Potassium ions (K⁺) flow out, repolarizing the neuron.

4. The impulse travels, triggering neurotransmitter release at the axon terminals.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical messenger released by neurons to transmit signals across synapses.

Neurotransmitter Process

1. Action potential reaches axon terminal.

2. Neurotransmitters are released into the synapse.

3. They bind to receptors on the next neuron, triggering or inhibiting an action potential.

Acetylcholine

Involved in muscle action and memory.

Dopamine

Associated with reward, pleasure, and movement.

Serotonin

Regulates mood, appetite, and sleep.

Norepinephrine

Involved in alertness and arousal.

GABA

An inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces neural activity.

Glutamate

An excitatory neurotransmitter that enhances learning.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Comprises the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Nerves outside the CNS, including somatic and autonomic systems.

Frontal Lobe

Responsible for decision-making and motor control.

Parietal Lobe

Processes sensory information.

Temporal Lobe

Involved in hearing and memory.

Occipital Lobe

Responsible for vision.

Cerebellum

Coordinates balance and coordination.

Brainstem

Controls basic life functions such as breathing and heart rate.

Split-Brain Experiments

Studies of individuals with a severed corpus callosum, showing independent hemisphere functions.

Brain Left Hemisphere

Language and logic.

Brain Right Hemisphere

 Spatial and creative tasks.

The Blank Slate (Tabula Rasa)

John Locke's idea that humans are born without inherent traits ; experiences shape personality

The Ghost in the Machine

Descartes' concept of the mind and body as separate entities. (Dualism linked to Descartes )

The Noble Savage

Jean-Jacques Rousseau's belief that humans are inherently good, corrupted by society.