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motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior
instinct
unlearned, patterned behavior
physiological need
basic needs that are vital to survival, such as food, water, sleep, and warmth
drive-reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused state (drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need
homeostasis
a tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal regulated state
incentive
positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior; can be material or inward feeling
Yerkes-Dodson law
the principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases/suffers
hierarchy of needs
Maslow’s pyramid of human needs: (bottom to top)
physiological needs = air, water, food
safety needs = physical/emotional safety (healthy, property, employment)
love and belonging = friendship, intimacy, sense of connection
esteem = respect, self-esteem, recognition
self actualization = desire to become the most that one can be/reach your fullest potential (most haven’t reached this)
glucose
the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues; when low, we feel hunger
ghrelin
hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach
set point
when body falls below weight, body fights losing weight; our body’s ideal weight
basal metabolic rate
how quickly your body processes food, related to set point
testosterone
male hormone
estrogen
female hormone
sexual response cycle
excitement - heart racing, start sweating
plateu - reach your personal excitement meter
orgasm - reached sexual satisfaction
refractory period - calms your body down
imagined stimuli
anything that brings on excitement
affiliation need
the need to build relationships and to feel part of a group
autonomy
sense of control
competence
deep sense of well-being (feeling confident/capable in specific areas)
ostracism
deliberate exclusion of someone; leads to violent behavior
narcissism
thinking so highly of yourself that you believe everyone else is beneath you
self-disclosure
when in social media, you act in a way you wouldn’t in real life
achievement motivation
individual person’s need to meet their goals
emotion
a response of the whole organism, involving (1) physiological response, (2) expressive behaviors and (3) conscious experience
James-Lange theory of emotion
our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to an emotion arousing stimulus; stimulus to arousal to emotion
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological response and (2) the subjective experience of emotion
Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion
to experience emotion, one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal; arousal fuels emotion, cognition channels it
polygraph
based on vital signs, notoriously unreliable
primary emotions
mad, sad, glad; secondary emotions are a combination of these emotions
display rules
verbal and nonverbal cues; varies among cultures
facial feedback effect
the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness
behavior feedback effect
the tendency of behavior to influence our own and others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions
stress
the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events called stressors (catastrophes, significant life changes, daily hassles) that we appraise as threatening or challenging
eustress
stress brought on by positive events
general adaption syndrome (GAS)
Hans Selye concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress (alarm, resistance, and exhaustion)
tend-and-befriend response
providing support to those in need
health psychology
psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine
psychoneuroimmunology
study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system
Type A
highly competitive, impatient, and prone to hostility
Type B
mellow, goals are accomplished or not, relaxed, less competitive
Type C
combination of both types
catharsis
releasing aggressive energy relieves aggressive urges
aerobic exercise
helps reduce stress
mindfulness meditation
people attend to current experiences in a nonjudgmental/accepting manner
feel-good, do-good phenomenon
people’s tendency to be helpful when in a good mood
positive psychology
scientific study of positive emotions and character traits that add to quality of life
adaption-level phenomenon
the tendency people have to quickly adapt to a new situation, until that situation becomes the norm. Once the new situation is normal, another new experience is needed -- it constantly raises the level for what is new or exciting as each new thing becomes the norm.
relative deprivation
the perception of being worse off compared to others
personality
usual pattern of behavior
psychosexual stages (Freud)
oral stage (birth to 18 months) = discovering the world through your mouth, if you get stuck you eat your pen, bite nails, chew gum…
anal stage (18 months to 3 years) = potty training; anal retentive = a person who has fixated on the anal stage of development, typically overly tidy, punctual and respectful of authority due to an excessive need for self-control; anal expulsive = messy, disorganized, reckless, careless, and defiant due to a fixation
phallic stage (3 to 6 years) = pleasure focuses on the genitals, kids masturbate in public
latency stage (6 years to puberty) = no romantic feelings, children focus on developing social and intellectual skills
genital stage (puberty to on) = normal romantic feelings, strong sexual interest
psychodynamic theories
theories that view personality with a focus on the unconscious and the importance of life experiences
psychoanalysis
Freud’s theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions; shaped by childhood
Freud’s unconscious
cannot prove it exists, the idea that the mind has hidden, forbidden thoughts that direct our behavior without our knowledge
free association
psychoanalytic idea, explore our unconscious by saying all of our thoughts out loud
repression
forcibly removing information that causes discomfort from the conscious mind; cannot be proved; psychological defense mechanism
id
urge to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives; operates on the pleasure principle which demands instant gratification
superego
part of unconscious that demands perfection (instead of pleasure), acts as your conscience
ego
part of the mind that balances out the id and superego; most of us are ruled by our ego
Oedipus complex
according to Freud, a boy’s feelings for mom makes him jealous and resentful of dad
Electra complex
equivalent for girls of Oedipus complex
identification
the process by which children incorporate their parents’ values into their developing superegos
fixation
being stuck in a psychosexual stage
defense mechanisms
the ego’s method for reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
collective unconscious
a shared, inherited collection of memories that is related to human history
projective test
a personality test that provides ambiguous (unclear) images to measure personality; hard to prove validity
displacement
defense mechanism; take out frustration on others
regression
defense mechanism; act childlike
projection
psychological defense mechanism where individuals attribute characteristics they find unacceptable in themselves to another person
reaction formation
a defense mechanism where an individual acts in a manner opposite to their actual feelings to keep their true feelings hidden
unconditional positive regard
Carl Rogers; a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude which helps people accept themselves; not scientific/hard to measure
traits
A characteristic that an organism can pass on to its offspring through its genes.
Abraham Maslow
hierarchy of needs
Alfred Kinsey
sexual cycle
William James
James-Lange theory of emotion
Walter Cannon
Cannon-bard theory of emotion
Stanley Schachter
Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
Joseph LeDoux, Robert Zajonc, Richard Lazarus
emotion and cognition are critical
Paul Ekman
studied emotions/facial expressions
Hans Selye
GAS (general adaptation syndrome)
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes
Rorshach inkblot test
the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots
humanistic theory
view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth
self-concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
personality inventory
a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes
social-cognitive perspective
views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context
behavioral approach
focuses on how observable behaviors are learned and influenced by the environment
reciprocal determinism
the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition, and environment
spotlight effect
overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)
self-esteem
one's feelings of high or low self-worth
self-efficacy
one's sense of competence and effectiveness
self-serving bias
the tendency to attribute positive events to one's own character but attribute negative events to external factors
individualism
giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
collectivism
giving priority to the goals of one's group (often one's extended family or work group) and defining one's identity accordingly
Sigmund Freud
Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis
Alfred Adler
Neo-Freudian; introduced concept of "inferiority complex" and stressed the importance of birth order
Karen Horney
Neo-Freudian; offered feminist critique of Freud's theory; childhood anxiety triggers our strivings for superiority and power; we all need love and security, not scientific
Carl Jung
neo-Freudian who created concept of "collective unconscious" and wrote books on dream interpretation
Carl Rogers
1902-1987; Field: humanistic; Contributions: founded person-centered therapy, theory that emphasizes the unique quality of humans especially their freedom and potential for personal growth, unconditional positive regard, fully functioning person
The Big Five
conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism/emotional stability, openness, and extraversion (CANOE)