ap psych unit 2 - perception, processing, thinking - lessons 1-3

top-down processing

a cognitive process where the brain uses prior knowledge, experiences, and context to interpret information.

ex. recognizing jumbled letters in a word using prior knowledge.

bottom-up processing

data-driven approach, meaning it begins with the individual components and uses them to create a larger picture or solution.

ex. learning to read by first recognizing letters and words.

selective attention

focusing on a specific stimulus while filtering out other distractions and irrelevant information.

inattentional blindness

person doesn’t notice unexpected but visible objects because their attention is focused on something else.

change blindness

someone fails to notice significant changes in their visual environment, even when changes are obvious.

binocular cues

depth cues that require the use of both eyes to perceive depth and distance.

monocular cues

depth cues that only need one eye to perceive.

retinal disparity

different images captured by each eye due to their different positions, which the brain uses to create a 3D perception.

convergence

2 or more things coming together or approaching a limit, resulting in a single point.

texture gradient

monocular cue where the change in the texture of a surface provides information about distance, with textures appearing less detailed as they go into the distance.

interposition

monocular cue where an object that blocks the view of another object is perceived as closer.

linear perspective

monocular cue where parallel lines look like they’re coming together because they’re heading farther away.

ex. train tracks in a painting

relative clarity

monocular cue where objects that are clearer are perceived as closer, while blurrier and more dull-colored objects seem farther away.

relative clarity vs texture gradient

relative clarity is the perception of depth based on how sharp an object appears.

texture gradient is the perception of depth based on the detail of an object's surface

relative size

monocular cue where you perceive an object’s size in comparison to other objects in the same visual field.

heighth in vertical plane

monocular cue that when something looks higher in a vertical plane, it seems farther away.

visual perception constancies

color constancy, size constancy, shape constancy

(tendency of perception to remain consistent with change)

gestalt perception

emphasizes that we perceive whole objects(gestalts) rather than bits of sensory info.

law of figure ground

part of what we see is the center of our attention and the rest is the background.

law of continuity

objects arranged in either a straight line or a curve are seen as a unit.

law of proximity

things that are close together are perceived as belonging together.

law of similarity

similar things are perceived as being related.

law of closure

incomplete figures tend to be perceived as complete wholes.

stroboscopic movement

illusion that objects are moving slower or stationary when they’re actually moving continuously under flashing lights.

phi phenomenon

illusion where stationary objects blinking rapidly appear to be in motion.

autokinetic effect

perception where a point seems to move after looking at it for a while.

inductive/informal reasoning

type of thinking that draws conclusions from observations or everyday knowledge.

ex. seeing a series of white swans and concluding all swans are white.

deductive/formal reasoning

type of thinking that uses general principles to draw conclusions.

ex. if it is raining, the ground will be wet. It is raining outside. Therefore, the ground is wet.

algorithm

step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution. it’s the “long way.”

ex. using every key to open a door.

concept

category used to group stuff that shares similar characteristics.

ex. different kinds of chairs.

natural concept

concept that’s formed naturally based on experience.

formal concept

concept that’s formed by memorizing rules.

schema

cluster of knowledge about something based on previous experience.

assimilation

new information is incorporated into pre-existing schemas.

accommodation

existing schemas might be altered or new schemas might be formed with new experiences.

cognitive dissonance

discomfort experienced when holding 2 or more conflicting beliefs or when your beliefs don’t match your actions.

ex. a smoker knowing that smoking is harmful, but does it anyway.

prejudice

schema that stops people from seeing the world as it is and stops them from taking in new information. “putting their beliefs over anything else.”

prototype

generalized “best example” of a category.

ex. calling a crow a bird more than a penguin, because a crow matches the prototype of a bird better.

exemplar

something that’s a perfect and specific example or a model of a category.

heuristic

informal reasoning strategy or guide that saves time-decision-making shortcut. 

ex. consistency, representative, or availability

consistency heuristic

“just do what you always do”

representative heuristic 

judge something based on how close it is to your prototype[“best example”], often ignoring statistical base rates.

availability heuristic

judge a situation based on examples of similar situations that initially come to mind.

analogy

judge a situation based on similar situations.

cocktail party effect

ability to attend to only one voice within a sea of many as you chat with a party guest(example of selective attention). 

perceptual set

to perceive one thing and not another based on our expectations.

divergent thinking

creative thought process used to form ideas by exploring many possible solutions.

ex. brainstorming uses for an object like a paperclip.

convergent thinking

seeking the “single solution” for a problem.

functional fixedness

when someone can’t think of a new use for an object because they only see it in terms of their original purpose.

the sunk cost fallacy

someone is reluctant to abandon a strategy because they’re invested in it, even if abandonment is more beneficial.

ex. reading a bad book, but still finishing it.

the gambler’s fallacy

belief that past events influence future ones, causing someone to believe an outcome is more likely to happen after it has occurred less frequently. 

ex. believing a coin is “due” for heads after landing on tails more frequently. 

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

metacognition

cognition about our cognition; keeping track of and evaluating our mental processes.

ex. realizing you have forgotten the key points of an article and deciding to reread it.

insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution.

mental set

tendency to use a previously successful solution to solve a new problem, even if a different approach is needed.

ex. pulling a push door

belief perseverance

the tendency to hold onto one's beliefs even when presented with evidence that contradicts them.

blindsight

a neuropsychological condition where individuals with damage to the primary visual cortex can respond to visual stimuli without consciously seeing them.

ex. if an object was moved to the left and a person who was looking at the object, but cortically blind, somehow knew it was moved to the left, even though they could not see it.