Psychology and Sociology High-Yield Exam Review

Flashcards covering Memory & Cognition, Mead's Theory of the Self, Classical Conditioning, the Autonomic Nervous System, Gestalt Principles, and Sociology based on specific MCAT student review notes.

What is spreading activation?

A memory process where activation of one concept spreads through a semantic network to related concepts, increasing the likelihood of recalling related information.

Which phenomenon does spreading activation explain?

The false recall of semantically related words that were not actually presented in a study list.

What is the serial position effect?

The tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than those in the middle.

Which component of the serial position effect refers to better recall of items presented first?

The primacy effect.

Which component of the serial position effect refers to better recall of items presented last?

The recency effect.

Why does the primacy effect occur according to memory models?

First items receive more rehearsal and are transferred into long-term memory.

Why does the recency effect occur according to memory models?

Last items remain in short-term (working) memory.

Which memory system explains the primacy effect?

Long-term memory.

Which memory system explains the recency effect?

Short-term (working) memory.

What major conclusion does the serial position effect support?

Short-term memory and long-term memory are separate memory systems.

What is the depth of processing theory?

The theory that information encoded semantically (deep processing) is remembered better than information encoded superficially (shallow processing).

What specific type of memory improvement is explained by depth of processing?

Improved long-term episodic memory.

What is the function of the visuospatial sketchpad?

It is the working memory component responsible for temporarily storing and manipulating visual and spatial information.

What is proactive interference?

A phenomenon where previously learned information interferes with the ability to learn or remember new information (Old → New).

What is retroactive interference?

A phenomenon where newly learned information interferes with the recall of older information (New → Old).

Why is proactive interference typically reduced in patients with Alzheimer's disease?

Because these patients have difficulty encoding new information into long-term memory, preventing it from being affected by older memories.

What type of memory formation is most impaired early in Alzheimer's disease?

Long-term episodic memory formation due to impaired encoding.

What is confirmation bias?

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Which two cognitive processes are primarily biased during confirmation bias?

Searching for evidence and interpreting evidence.

In what contexts is confirmation bias especially strong?

Emotionally charged topics.

What is impression management?

Attempts to control how others perceive you.

Why is parental concealment of information not considered confirmation bias?

It reflects impression management rather than biased cognitive processing.

What is a sociological organization?

A relatively formal group with identifiable membership that works together to achieve common goals.

What is an example of an organizational change in the medical field?

Creating a new medical specialty such as child abuse pediatrics.

What is anomie?

A state of normlessness where social norms have weakened, causing individuals to feel disconnected from society.

What is the typical feeling associated with someone experiencing anomie?

Feeling disconnected from the larger community.

What is groupthink?

A decision-making process where the desire for group harmony is prioritized over critical evaluation and dissent.

How do groupthink and anomie differ regarding group cohesion?

Groupthink involves excessive group cohesion, whereas anomie involves weak attachment to social norms.

What does the James-Lange theory of emotion propose?

Physiological arousal occurs first, which then leads to the experience of emotion (Stimulus → Physiological response → Emotion).

What does the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion propose?

Physiological arousal and the experience of emotion occur simultaneously.

What does the Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory propose?

Emotion results from both physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal.

Which theory of emotion specifies that physiological arousal must come before the emotion?

James-Lange Theory.

Under World Systems Theory, what is a core nation?

A wealthy, industrialized nation with strong governments and institutions that dominates global trade.

Under World Systems Theory, what is a semi-periphery nation?

A nation that is industrializing and shares characteristics of both core and peripheral countries.

Under World Systems Theory, what is a periphery nation?

A less developed nation with weak governments and institutions that depends economically on core nations.

Which nations are most dependent on others according to World Systems Theory?

Peripheral nations.

According to George Herbert Mead, what is the 'I'?

The spontaneous, autonomous, creative, and unpredictable part of the self that acts independently of society.

According to George Herbert Mead, what is the 'Me'?

The socialized part of the self that develops through interactions and reflects society's expectations.

Which part of Mead's self develops through social interaction?

The Me.

Which part of Mead's self is impulsive and responds to the social world?

The I.

In George Herbert Mead's theory, which part of the self thinks, 'What will people think?'

The Me.

In George Herbert Mead's theory, which part of the self says, 'I don't care what anyone thinks'?

The I.

How does Mead's 'I' differ from Freud's id?

Mead's 'I' is the spontaneous self, while Freud's id represents instinct.

How does Mead's 'Me' differ from Freud's ego?

Mead's 'Me' is the social self, while Freud's ego follows the reality principle.

What is role-taking?

The ability to mentally assume another person's perspective to understand how they think or feel.

Why is role-taking important for development?

It allows for the development of empathy, social awareness, and a sense of self.

What is role-playing?

Acting out another person's role to learn expected behaviors.

What is the Preparatory Stage of development?

Occurring from birth to about age $2$, children imitate others without understanding the meaning behind the behaviors.

What is the Play Stage of development?

Occurring around ages $2$ to $6$, children pretend to be specific individuals and develop role-taking for one person at a time.

What is the Game Stage of development?

Beginning around age $7$, children understand multiple roles simultaneously and learn social rules.

What is the 'generalized other'?

The internalized attitudes, expectations, and norms of society that guide an individual's behavior.

During which developmental stage does the generalized other develop?

The Game Stage.

Why is the generalized other important for societal functioning?

It allows people to behave appropriately without needing explicit instructions for every situation.

What is symbolic interactionism?

A sociological theory stating people create meaning through interaction using symbols like language and gestures.

Which theorist is credited with developing symbolic interactionism?

George Herbert Mead.

What are 'symbols' in the context of symbolic interactionism?

Anything that carries shared meaning between people, such as language, gestures, or objects.

Why is language essential to Mead's theory?

It allows individuals to communicate, share symbols, and develop the self.

What is Charles Cooley's 'Looking-Glass Self'?

The idea that individuals develop their self-image based on how they believe others perceive and judge them.

What is the first step of the Looking-Glass Self?

Imagine how others see you.

What is the second step of the Looking-Glass Self?

Imagine how others judge you.

What is the third step of the Looking-Glass Self?

Develop feelings about yourself based on imagined judgments.

What is the primary difference between Mead and Cooley regarding the self?

Cooley focuses on imagined judgments, while Mead focuses on role-taking and actual social interaction.

When a student follows classroom rules because they know what is expected, which Mead concept is active?

The generalized other.

A child pretending to be a doctor is in which of Mead's stages?

The Play Stage.

A soccer player understanding the roles of all teammates is in which stage?

The Game Stage.

A toddler copying a parent's actions without understanding is in which stage?

The Preparatory Stage.

What is an Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)?

A stimulus that naturally and automatically produces a response without prior learning.

What is an Unconditioned Response (UCR)?

The natural, automatic response produced by the unconditioned stimulus.

What is a Conditioned Stimulus (CS)?

A previously neutral stimulus that produces a response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

What is a Conditioned Response (CR)?

A learned response to a previously neutral (conditioned) stimulus.

What happens during exposure therapy?

The conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus until the response disappears.

What is extinction?

The gradual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

What is generalization in conditioning?

When a conditioned response occurs in response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

What is discrimination in conditioning?

Learning to respond only to the specific conditioned stimulus and not to similar stimuli.

In the explosion example, what is the UCS and UCR?

The loud explosion is the UCS, and fear is the UCR.

In the elevator example, what is the CS and CR?

The elevator is the CS, and fear is the CR.

What is working memory?

A limited-capacity system that temporarily stores and manipulates information for ongoing tasks.

What is the phonological loop?

The working memory component that stores and rehearses verbal and auditory information.

Which memory system is used when repeating words aloud to memorize them?

Working memory (specifically the phonological loop).

What is implicit memory?

Unconscious memory for skills, habits, and conditioned responses.

What is procedural memory?

A type of implicit memory involving learned motor skills, such as riding a bike.

What is sensory memory?

An extremely brief storage system that holds incoming sensory information before processing.

What is the function of the autonomic nervous system (ANS)?

Controls involuntary functions like heart rate, blood pressure, and digestion.

What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?

The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS).

What is the overall function of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS)?

Prepares the body for stressful 'fight-or-flight' situations by increasing energy expenditure.

Which neurotransmitter is released by most postganglionic sympathetic neurons?

Norepinephrine.

Which sympathetic neurons release acetylcholine instead of norepinephrine?

Those supplying the sweat glands.

Which hormones are released from the adrenal medulla during sympathetic activation?

Epinephrine and norepinephrine.

How do pupils react to sympathetic activation?

They dilate (mydriasis).

What is the purpose of pupil dilation in a fight-or-flight response?

To allow more light into the eye and improve awareness of threats.

What effect does the SNS have on heart rate?

It increases heart rate (positive chronotropy).

What effect does the SNS have on cardiac contractility?

It increases contractility (positive inotropy).

What happens to cardiac output during SNS activation?

It increases to deliver more oxygen and nutrients to muscles.

How do blood vessels supplying skeletal muscle react to SNS activation?

They undergo vasodilation.

How do blood vessels supplying the skin and digestive organs react to SNS activation?

They undergo vasoconstriction.

Why does the SNS cause vasoconstriction in the skin?

To redirect blood toward muscles and vital organs.

What happens to bronchioles during sympathetic activation?

They undergo bronchodilation to increase airflow.

What is the effect of SNS activation on blood glucose?

It increases blood glucose levels.

Which metabolic processes are stimulated by the SNS to increase glucose?

Glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.

How does SNS activation affect insulin and glucagon?

Insulin decreases and glucagon increases.