Roman Republic

Roman army

Roman military propelled the rise of Rome. Roman military forced neghbors into submission. Some of those conquered areas are allowed to become Roman citizens, some are citizens without voting rights. All conquered communities contributed money and troops to Rome.

Expansion and growth of early Rome

Following the expulsion of the Etruscan kings, the Romans formed the Latin League in 493 BC

for defensive purposes. The first major conquest by the Romans was the Etruscan stronghold of

Veii in 396 BC. Veii was a commercial rival located north of Rome on the Tiber River. The

victorious Roman general was Camillus. Story like Troy!

RESULTS OF EARLY ROMAN EXPANSION:

1. Conquered people paid taxes, supplied soldiers, and followed Roman leadership.

2. Conquered people kept: customs, money, and local government.

3. A few groups were offered full citizenship, but most were offered just partial citizenship.

4. Romans posted a network of soldiers throughout the land.

The Punic Wars

Rome vs. Carthage. Name comes from Punicus, the Latin word for

Phoenician, who were the original settlers of Carthage. Carthage had a strong navy, but its

army was composed mainly of mercenaries. Rome eventually wins due to the ability of their

allies to provide supplies and men – Rome can continually rebuild fleets even after they are

destroyed by Carthage navy. The cause of the wars was initially a struggle over Sicily. Both Carthage and Rome are

seeking to control trade on the Mediterranean Sea.

1st Punic War

The cause of the wars was initially a struggle over Sicily. Both Carthage and Rome are

seeking to control trade on the Mediterranean Sea.

Terms of peace treaty to end 1st Punic war

1. Carthage gives Sicily to Rome.

2. Carthage pays a large indemnity which forces them to have to hire more mercenaries.

3. Rome seizes Sardinia in 238 BC and Corsica in 227 BC leading to a second war.

2nd Punic war causes

1. Carthage’s desire for revenge. 2. Rome concerned over Carthage’s expansion into Spain.

Battle at Trebbia River

218 BC Hannibal outsmarts the Romans and wins the first major battle of the war at the Trebbia River. Between 12,000 to 15,00 Roman casualties.

Battle at Lake Tresimenus

217 BC Hannibal defeats Romans at Lake Tresimenus. He uses the lake, hills, and a foggy morning for the ambush, killing close to 15,000 of the 25,000-man Roman army. All captured non-Romans were released unharmed.

Battle of Cannae

216 BC Hannibal inflicts great defeat of Romans at famous battle of Cannae.

Hannibal = Less than 40,000 men.

Romans = Around 79,000 men.

Paulus

Does not want to fight. Stays and dies in the battle.

Varro

Wanted to do battle with Hannibal but ran when the heavy fighting started.

Roman reaction to Cannae

Quintus Fabius Maximus was appointed as the new Roman military leader. His strategy was mirror Hannibal’s movements and not engage him in direct combat. These tactics earned him the nickname “the Delayer” and have become known as Fabian tactics. To Hannibal’s frustration the Roman will is not broken! Hannibal is never able to break the Roman spirit as evidenced by the fact that land outside of Rome continued to change hands at fair market value (211 BC).

Carthaginian Reaction to Cannae

Hannibal is encouraged by his generals to attack a defenseless Rome. He refuses. Probably his biggest mistake. The rings of killed Roman knights were taken to Carthage and poured onto their Senate floor.

Siege of Syracuse

Archimedes’ defenses help Syracuse hold out for 2 years: cranes to overturn ships, shields to reflect sunlight.

Turning Point In The War

In 207 BC Hannibal’s brother, Hadsrubal attempted to march an army into Italy to bring Hannibal reinforcements. He was successful in crossing both the Alps and Pyrenees mountains. He attempted to march south to join Hannibal but was cut off by a combined Roman army. Hadsrubal was defeated at the battle of Metaurus River. He died in the battle and his head was flung into Hannibal’s camp. Hannibal realizes his invasion is a lost cause P. Cornelius Scipio then drives the Carthaginians out of Spain. In 205 BC, Scipio invades north Africa. Hannibal is recalled to Carthage to defend the city.

Peace Treaty to end 2nd Punic War

1. Carthage loses Spain.

2. Destruction of Carthaginian fleet.

3. Carthage pays a huge indemnity for 50 years.

3rd Punic War

149 to 146 BC. Influenced by Roman Senator Cato who ended all speeches with “Cartago delende est!” or “Carthage must be destroyed”. Carthage resisted Roman invasion for 3 years, but eventually the Romans entered the city. Fighting lasted in Carthage for 6 weeks and in the end was house to house and hand to hand combat. In the end, Carthage’s population reduced from 500,000 to around 55,000. Carthage is burned to the ground and salt is sown into fields. All survivors were sold as slaves.

Results of the Punic Wars

1. By 133 BC the Romans controlled from Spain to Egypt. They referred to the Mediterranean as “our sea”. Rome gains control of nearby islands such as Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica.

2. Macedonia, Greece, and Asia Minor are Roman provinces.

3. Warfare changes. Instead of coming home for the growing season, the army stays until the battle is finished. This change has a significant social impact on Rome: women are forced to pay taxes but cannot afford to, and so they are forced to move to the cities with their slaves. The cities cannot handle the increase in population. Slums are formed. The Roman welfare system is developed. “Bread and circuses” Free bread and gladiators for entertainment.

Macedonian Wars

Roman Conquest of Greece The Antigonids were a Macedonian based civilization, and a remnant of Alexander’s empire. Some Greek cities turn to Rome as allies against the Antigonids, Rome defeats Antigonids, leading to end of Macedonian control of Greece. A series of 4 wars are fought in Greece, ending with the destruction/burning of the city of Corinth. Romans turn Macedon into a province, taxing their ample wealth to the extent that Rome cancels taxes on its own citizens.

First Macedonian War Cause and Results

Cause: King Philip V of Macedon allied with Hannibal in 2nd Punic War.

Result: Roman navy prevents Philip V from crossing into Italy.

2nd Macedonian War Cause and Results

Cause: War of revenge against Philip V of Macedonia for his actions in the 2nd Punic War.

Result: In 197 BC at battle of Cynoscephalae, Roman legions defeat Philip V. Romans declare all Greeks to be free!

3rd Macedonian War cause and results

Cause: Perseus, son of Philip V, allies himself with Seleucid kingdom and Rhodes and attempts to defeat Romans.

Result: Perseus is defeated, and Romans capture enough loot to end direct taxation on Roman citizens.

4th Macedonian War cause

Cause: Greeks refuse to end aggression toward Romans. Romans make Corinth an example by burning the city, killing all the males, and selling women and children into slavery. Macedonia becomes Roman province and all of Greece comes under control of a Roman appointed governor. Only Athens and Sparta remain autonomous.

The Syrian War

The Seleucids were another of Alexander’s Hellenistic dynasties that initially resisted Rome. Antiokhos III comes to Greece from Seleucid center in Asia Minor, but is defeated by Romans, Scipio Africanus at the battle of Magnesia. Hannibal had taken refuge with Antiokhos III but commits suicide in 184 BC to avoid capture. Antiohkos IV, son of III, tries to conquer Egypt, but Roman diplomats convince him to back off.

Pergamon

Rome continues to expand (Carthage now a Roman province), sometimes in unconventional ways. Pergamon is surrendered to Rome on the deathbed of a Pergamon monarch, Attalos III who does not want control to passed to his brother.

Creation of Roman empire

By 133 BC Rome had 8 provinces and controlled Greece, all of Italy and Spain, and part of North Africa, as well as parts of western Asia Minor. Roman expansion comes at social and military costs.

First problem that led to collapse of Roman republic

I Decline of political morality. Roman politicians also lead armies, and they begin to pick fights with other territories for their own benefit (not the benefit of Rome). Roman soldiers (middle class farmers) spend too much time away from their land and go bankrupt. The rich generals/politicians buy the farms and use slave labor (the spoils of war) instead of Roman citizens to work the land. The individual became more important than the group. A. Rise of extremely wealthy group who demonstrated a love of luxury.

B. Rise of equite class. Former horsemen in the army who became wealthier through war profiteering (Punic Wars).

C. Decline of the Senate = Many members became immensely wealthy through control of the provinces and taking bribes. Other officials used their offices to acquire personal fortunes

Second problem that led to collapse of Roman republic

A. Loss of life: From many wars. Punic Wars, Macedonian Wars, wars of expansion

B. Loss of good farmland: Hannibal destroyed 50% of the Roman fields.

C. Influx of cheap slave grown corn. Drove down prices of the Roman farmers.

D. Rise of latifundia or large estates. Worked more economically with slaves.

Third reason that led to collapse of Roman republic

Rise of unemployment: Thriving slave markets displaced: 1. small farmers. 2. freeworkers, 3. domestic servants. The unemployed drifted into Rome and became an economic and political liability.

Fourth reason that led to collapse of Roman republic

IV. Decline of political stability.

A. Widening gap between the rich and poor. A few families represented the majority of political

control.

B. 1. Optimates: Conservatives who were majority of the Senate. They represented the

patricians.

2. populares: Liberals who championed reform for the poor.

C. Italian tribes who were angry at being denied Roman citizenship.

Who are the Gracchi brothers?

Two brothers (Tiberius Gracchi and Gauis Gracchi) serve as tribunes between 133 BC and 121 BC. The grandsons of Scipio Africanus, they are from a wealthy patrician family. They propose laws to limit the amount of land any one person can hold and colonize other areas to give farms to the landless, winning support of the people but the animosity of the elite/Patricians. They proposed land reform program to:

1. LIMIT SIZE OF ESTATES

2. REDISTRIBUTE LAND TO THE POOR.

Tiberius Gracchi

Elected tribune in 133 BC. When he attempted to run for re-election, he was murdered by a mob along with 300 supporters after: promising citizenship to Italian allies and violating election reforms. Land reforms based on wealth from acquisition of Pergamon!

Gaius Gracchi

Elected tribune in 124 BC. He placed his brother’s reforms into effect (see above) but went too far by attempting to grant citizenship to Italian tribes! Gaius was far more confrontational than his brother and some of his new laws were directed at those responsible for the death of Tiberius. He ran for re-election and won leading the Senate to move to repeal the Gracchi laws and chaos/violence broke out! He was hunted until he committed suicide and 3000 of his followers were executed!

Key result of the Gracchi brothers

LED TO PERMANENT DISTRIBUTION OF FREE GRAIN. THIS LED TO DISTRIBUTION OF BREAD TO THE POOR. THE DOLE!

1st part of road to civil war

I. Gaius Marius (157 to 86 BC) Roman general and politician. He was an effective general chosen as a tribune but denied an army by the Senate. He recruits legions without the property qualification, then gets senate to award land to his soldiers after their victories. It is a precedent that follows for the next century, generals using landless soldiers by promising the soldiers rewards from the senate for their service. The veterans of the wars become political clients of the generals, meaning armies are loyal to generals, not the state. RESULTS: 1. He made army professional by calling for volunteers from the city working class. 2. ARMIES NOW MORE LOYAL TO GENERALS RATHER THEN STATE! He also successfully concluded the Jugurthine War. Jugurtha was the king of Numidia, who had previously been an ally of Rome. The Romans were unable to control him, but he kept power by bribing Senators. He was defeated by the Romans when his father-in-law betrayed him

2nd part of road to civil war

Social Wars (91 to 88 BC) Were a revolt by the Italian tribes seeking equitable treatment that was denied by the Senate Gaius Marius won victories in the north and Sulla won victories in the south. Rome finally granted full citizenship to the Italian tribes, but over 300,000 people were killed in the war. The tribes were grouped in a way to insure Roman dominance.

3rd part of road to civil war

Civil War Part 1. Marius vs. Sulla (88 to 82 BC) Marius was supported by the populares, and Sulla was supported by the optimates. Sulla fought rebellious allies in Italy and secured a spot as a consul. He wanted the lucrative military command of fighting Mithradates VI of Pontus, but Sulla's political advances are blocked by Marius. If Marius regained power, Sulla’s soldiers lost their political influence. Sulla was designated to lead an army to Asia Minor. The Tribal Assembly then ordered a transfer of military power to Marius, leading to conflict between Marius and Sulla

Sulla

Sulla became the first Roman general to:

1. USE ARMY FOR POLITICAL PURPOSES

2. MARCH ARMY INTO ROME

Results of Marius leaving Rome

Marius then fled to Africa, after Sulla seizes power. Sulla then consolidates his power in Rome and leaves for Asia Minor. Marius returns to Rome to seize control and become a consul for the 7th time but dies in office. Sulla returns to Rome in 82 BC and defeats the supporters of Marius. Sulla wins first Roman civil war when Marius died and becomes Roman dictator. He then establishes an absolute dictatorship from 82 to 79 BC by: 1. killing the leaders of the populares, and 2. making the power of Senate supreme once more, and then retires from office! Sulla also gave land to his soldiers and instituted reforms that limited the power of the tribunes. Sulla remained dictator for two years, longer than Roman law allowed, thereby weakening Roman political institutions.

Rise of Caesar

The struggle between the populares and the optimates renews in 78 BC with the death of Sulla. In 60 BC. the 1ST TRIUMVIRATE, 3 powerful men who have protection from the Senate, is formed.

Pompey

Protege of Sulla and most powerful of the 3. Repealed some of Sulla’s reforms, winning favor with the plebeians. Pompey defeats Mithradates VI of Pontus and expands the Roman Empire. Mithradates VI wanted control of Black Sea coast, fought the Roman general Sulla over Pergamon. Mithradates VI, although not a Roman, was a central figure in causing first Roman civil war. Successful military general supported by the Tribal Assembly and allied with Crassus.

Crassus

The wealthiest man in Rome. (est. 25 million!) Defeated Spartacus in battle twice.

Julius Caesar

Nephew of Marius. Originally financially backed by Crassus, but soon acquired great personal wealth through political positions. His appointment to the Triumvirate successfully blocks a civil war between Crassus and Pompey. Acquired great fame and fortune with his conquest of Gaul.

End of First Triumvirate

The First Triumvirate ends with the sudden death of Crassus, killed fighting in the east. Pompey switched allegiances from the populares to the optimates because of Caesar’s growing popularity. In 49 BC., Caesar was ordered to disband his army before returning from Gaul or become a public enemy! Caesar crossed the Rubicon River with 1 legion, was the joined by 2 more legions, and then raised 3 more from the enthusiastic population! Caesar becomes second Roman general to march army into Rome. Pompey with 10 legions fled to Greece without giving battle! Caesar defeats Pompey in 48 BC at the battle of Pharsalus in Greece. Pompey flees to Egypt where he is promptly executed by the Egyptian boy king Ptolemy XIII. Caesar arrives and forms an alliance with Cleopatra making her the co-ruler of Egypt. He leaves Egypt due to revolt in the east. Revolt crushed so quickly that he issued his famous quote VINI, VIDI, VICI! In 46 and 45 BC he defeats the rest of Pompey’s family and seizes control of Rome.

Rule of Caesar

In 46 BC Caesar became dictator for 10 years, and then in 44 BC he appointed himself dictator for life. Roman dictators supposed to rule for 6-month periods in emergencies only. He broke aristocratic control of Senate by increasing number to 900 with army veterans and province citizens now admitted. He spent only 17 months in Rome from 49 to 44 BC due to civil wars. He was a military genius who increased and consolidated the bounds of the Roman empire. Master at moving his army with great speed and improvising new tactics on the battlefield. Led his men into battle when the soldiers wavered.

Reforms of Caesar

He was the first to grant citizenship to the provinces. He adopted the Julian Calendar. Caesar decreased unemployment, stimulated trade and commerce, and began public works program which curtailed the distribution of free grain.

Assassination of Caesar

Assassinated by the Senate who feared permanently losing their power. There were rumors that Caesar wants to be made king (in opposition to Roman tradition. The plot involved some 60 senators including Cicero, one of Rome’s greatest orators. He was murdered on the way into the Senate Chamber and died at the base of Pompey’s statue.

First part of the final Stage of Civil War

Formation of Second Triumvirate

Marc Antony

Caesars chief lieutenant and right-hand man. Won control of Rome after his famous funeral oration. However, he soon lost control by failing to carry out Caesars will including Octavian. Eventually came to need the support of Octavian’s private army.

Octavian

Adopted nephew of Caesar. Supported by Senate over Antony. Changed his support from Senate to Marc Antony in order to get revenge for Caesar’s murder. C. Lepidus: One of Caesar’s former generals and an Antony supporter

Second Triumvirate

Unlike the 1st Triumvirate, this one is formal and official. This indicates that political institutions in Rome are becoming less rigid, the Republic is falling apart!

Second part of final civil war

Caesars revenge: The 2nd Triumvirate marked about 300 Senators and 2000 others for execution, including Cicero, who was executed in 43 BC. At the Battle of Philippi. 42 BC. In Greece, Antony and Octavian defeat the combined army of Cassius and Marcus Brutus. Both commit suicide after the battle. The 2nd Triumvirate divides up Rome’s domains:

Division of Roman territory

1. Antony: EGYPT, GREECE, THE EAST, BY CHOICE

2. Octavian: WEST, DIVIDES GAUL W/LEPIDUS

3. Lepidus: AFRICA, SHARED GAUL W/OCTAVIAN

End of second triumvirate

The 2nd Triumvirate ends when Lepidus attempts to seize Sicily from Octavian. His troops desert him and he is forced to retire.

Rise of Octavian

Antony is considered to be stronger than Octavian however, his poor decision-making and lack of political savvy cost him. He lost almost 50,000 troops in an ill-advised invasion of Parthia, and he divorced Octavian’s sister and married Cleopatra. Octavian was more politically savvy than Antony. Used his time in Rome to gain support of the Senate and proclaimed the fear of Egyptian dominance. At the Battle of Actium in 31 BC., off the coast of Greece, Octavian’s smaller faster ships outmaneuver Antony and Cleopatra’s navy. Antony and Cleopatra fled to Egypt where they were pursued by Octavian until they both committed suicide rather than be captured by Octavian

DEcline of Roman republic: Octavian

Peace is restored in Rome through Octavian’s dominance, lasting 45 years. This marks the transformation from Roman Republic to Roman Empire (ruled by emperor). Octavian takes new name, Augustus, and rules as a Roman emperor. Instead of taking control as “dictator” as others before him had, Octavian/Augustus took his powers in new ways and new titles. When Caesar is made a god by the Senate, Octavian/Augustus adds Caesar to his own name to show he is a son of a god. All Roman emperors from here on out will be regarded as Caesar!