AP Psychology Semester 1 Notes

Hindsight Bias

Belief that one predicted an outcome after learning it.

Overconfidence

Tendency to overestimate one's knowledge or abilities.

Critical Thinking

Evaluating evidence and assessing conclusions.

Case Studies

In-depth study of an individual using various methods.

Naturalistic Observation

Recording behavior in an organism's natural environment.

Laboratory Observation

Behavior study in a controlled environment.

Testing Method

Use of psychological tests to assess abilities.

Survey

Study of attitudes and behaviors from a large group.

Sampling

Selecting a portion of the population for study.

Random Samples

Each individual has an equal chance of selection.

Representative Sample

Sample reflects subgroups proportionally from the population.

Independent Variable

Variable manipulated by the researcher in an experiment.

Dependent Variable

Variable that changes due to the independent variable.

Placebo Effect

Health improvement from a treatment with no therapeutic benefit.

Double-Blind Experiment

Neither participants nor researchers know treatment assignments.

Single Blind Experiment

Participants are unaware of their treatment status.

4 Goals of Basic Research

Describe, predict, control, and explain phenomena.

Ethics in Case Studies

Guidelines ensuring participant rights and welfare.

Informed Consent

Participants agree to study after being informed.

Deception

Truthfulness required in participant interactions.

Anonymity

Protection of personal information in research.

Minimal Risk

Preference for low-risk research procedures.

Debriefing Procedure

Reviewing study results with participants post-experiment.

Neural signaling

Communication within and between neurons.

Intra-neural signaling

Signal transmission within a single neuron.

Inter-neural signaling

Signal transmission between multiple neurons.

Biological psychology

Study of biological factors influencing behavior.

Nervous system

Network of cells transmitting signals in the body.

Macroscopic nervous system

Includes brain and spinal cord structures.

Microscopic nervous system

Cells and components forming the nervous system.

Neurons

Cells that transmit electrochemical signals.

Resting potential

Voltage across a neuron at rest, -70 mV.

Potential energy

Stored energy available for use.

Kinetic energy

Energy in motion, released during signaling.

Ritalin

Stimulant drug for treating ADHD and ADD.

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter affecting mood and behavior.

Sodium-Potassium Pump

Active transport mechanism for ion balance.

Active transport

Energy-requiring movement of substances across membranes.

Passive transport

Movement of substances without energy use.

Concentration gradient

Difference in particle concentration across a membrane.

Electrical gradient

Difference in charge across a membrane.

Action potential

Wave of depolarization along a neuron.

Graded potential

Variable changes in membrane potential.

Threshold potential

Minimum energy to trigger neuron firing.

Refractory period

Time after firing when neuron cannot fire again.

All or none law

Neuron fires fully or not at all.

Saltatory conduction

Action potential jumps between nodes, speeding transmission.

Node of Ranvier

Gap between myelinated sections of axon.

Scorpion venom

Keeps sodium channels open in neurons.

Local anesthetic

Blocks sodium channels to prevent pain.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals that transmit signals across synapses.

Synapse

Space between neurons for chemical signaling.

Action potential

Electrical signal triggering neurotransmitter release.

Voltage-gated Ca2+ channel

Opens to allow calcium influx during signaling.

Diffusion

Passive transport of neurotransmitters across synapse.

IPSP

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential, reduces firing likelihood.

EPSP

Excitatory postsynaptic potential, increases firing likelihood.

Axon Hillock

Decision point for neuron firing action potentials.

All or none law

Action potentials occur fully or not at all.

Graded potentials

Variable signals that can be excitatory or inhibitory.

Antagonists

Drugs that block neurotransmitter effects.

Agonists

Drugs that mimic or enhance neurotransmitter effects.

Affinity

Strength of drug binding to receptor.

Efficacy

Drug's ability to activate a receptor.

Opiate drugs

Derived from poppy plants, affect pain and mood.

Morphine

Painkiller used for post-surgery recovery.

Heroin

Illegal opiate, not prescribed for use.

Methadone

Used in clinics to treat opiate addiction.

Anandamide

Binds to THC receptors, affects mood.

Alcohol

Depressant that inhibits glutamate receptors.

Nucleus accumbens

Brain's pleasure center, involved in addiction.

Neurons

Cells that transmit signals throughout the nervous system.

Myelin Sheath

Insulates and protects axons for efficient signaling.

Dendrites

Receive impulses and conduct them to the cell body.

Central Nervous System

Comprises the brain and spinal cord.

Peripheral Nervous System

Connects CNS to the rest of the body.

Somatic Nervous System

Transmits sensory information to the CNS.

Autonomic Nervous System

Regulates involuntary body functions like heartbeat.

Sensory Neurons

Transmit sensory information to the central nervous system.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Connects the body to the central nervous system.

Motor Neurons

Carry signals from CNS to muscles and glands.

Interneurons

Connect neurons within the central nervous system.

Endocrine System

Chemical communication system using hormones in blood.

Pituitary Gland

Regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Thyroid Gland

Produces thyroxine to regulate metabolism.

Adrenal Gland

Secretes hormones for stress response, like epinephrine.

Testes and Ovaries

Produce sex hormones like testosterone and estrogen.

Accidents in Brain Study

Reveal effects of physical brain damage.

Electrical Stimulation

Causes specific sensations by stimulating brain areas.

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Measures brain's electrical activity using electrodes.

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT)

Creates 3D images to detect brain damage.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

Uses magnetic fields to detect brain changes.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

Imaging test using radioactive tracers to assess function.

Functional MRI (fMRI)

Combines PET and MRI for real-time brain activity.

Phineas Gage

Example of frontal lobe damage affecting behavior.

Phrenology

Discredited study linking skull shape to personality.

Hindbrain

Posterior brain region responsible for vital functions.

Frontal Lobe

Involved in planning, decision-making, and personality.

Reflexes

Automatic responses to stimuli, involving interneurons.

Hormones

Chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands.