Atypical gender development (gender dysphoria)

What is gender dysphoria?

• Strong, persistent feelings of identification with the opposite gender

• Discomfort with one’s own assigned sex 

What are two biological factors that have been used to explain gender dysphoria?

Brain sex theory & genetic factors

What does brain sex theory propose gender dysphoria is caused by?

Specific brain structures that are incompatible with a person’s biological sex → particular attention has been paid to those areas of the brain that are dimorphic

What does dimorphic mean?

Areas of the brain that take a different form in males & females

What is a dimorphic area of the brain linked to gender dysphoria?

BSTc (or white matter)

By what age is the BSTc fully developed?

5 years old

What is the difference in size of the BSTc between males & females?

40% larger in males

How do Coolidge & Heylens et al.’s research into genetic factors provide evidence that gender dysphoria may have a genetic basis?

• Coolidge et al. assessed 157 twin pairs for evidence of gender dysphoria using clinical diagnosis of criteria in DSM-4 & found that 62% of cases were said to be accounted for by genetic variance.

• Heylens et al. found that 39% of MZ twins were concordant for gender dysphoria, compared to 0% for DZ twins

Who proposed the psychoanalytic theory?

Ovesey & Person

What does the psychoanalytic theory propose gender dysphoria in biological males is caused by?

• The child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established

• The child fantasises of a symbiotic fusion with their mother to relieve this anxiety & the danger of separation is removed

In the psychoanalytic theory of gender dysphoria, what is the consequence of a symbiotic fusion?

The child, in a very real sense, becomes the mother & therefore adopts a female gender identity

How does Stoller provide support for the psychoanalytic theory of gender dysphoria?

Stoller reports that, in interviews with gender dysphoric biological males, they were seen to display overly close relationships with their mothers that would lead to greater female identification & atypical gender identity in the long term

What is social constructionism?

Gender identity is a social construct (i.e. created by societies):

• people are forced to choose to be either male or female → the decision to be male or female is a social phenomenon rather than a biological one

• however, being forced to choose one of the two paths could cause confusion for some individuals which is when gender dysphoria may arise 

Discuss and evaluate research related to atypical gender development (16 marks)

Write your AO1 paragraph

• Atypical gender development (gender dysphoria) is characterised by a persistent identification with the opposite gender & discomfort with one’s assigned sex, often accompanied by a desire to live as the opposite gender.

• The brain sex theory proposes that brain structures may not align with a person’s biological sex. For example, the BSTc (fully formed by age 5) is 40% larger in males than females. Gender dysphoria can also be explained genetically. For example, Coolidge et al. found that 62% of gender dysphoria cases could be explained by genetic variance. Additionally, Heylens et al. found a 39% concordance rate in MZ twins compared to 0% in DZ twins.

• Ovesey & Person’s psychoanalytic theory proposes that gender dysphoria in males results from the child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established. This causes the child to fantasise of a symbiotic fusion with his mother to relive this anxiety. The child, in a very real sense, becomes the mother & adopts a female gender identity.

• Social constructionism proposes that gender is a social construct & being forced to choose to be either male or female by society leads to confusion & ultimately, gender dysphoria.

Discuss and evaluate research related to atypical gender development (16 marks)

Write your strength AO3 PEEL (Zhou et al.)

• Point: One strength of biological explanations for atypical gender development is that there is research evidence in support.

• Evidence: For example, Zhou et al. found in post-mortem studies of 6 transgender women, their BSTc region was a similar size to that of a typical female brain.

• Explain: This suggests that innate, biological factors may be involved in gender dysphoria & points towards a neurological basis.

• Link: As such, this means that psychological explanations must account for how biological structures that differ from birth interact with early experiences.

Discuss and evaluate research related to atypical gender development (16 marks)

Write your strength AO3 PEEL (scientific stance)

• Point: One strength of biological explanations for gender dysphoria is that they are more scientific compared to the psychodynamic approach.

• Evidence: For example, Ovesey & Person’s psychoanalytic theory, involving separation anxiety & symbiotic fantasies, are unfalsifiable as they rely on unconscious processes that cannot be objectively measured.

• Explain: This is in contrast to the scientific research methods of Zhou et al. who used brain scans to study the BSTc of 6 transgender women.

• Link: Overall, biological explanations have greater validity than the psychodynamic approach, which are unsupported according to Karl Popper’s criterion of falsifiability.

Discuss and evaluate research related to atypical gender development (16 marks)

Write your limitation AO3 PEEL (Rekers)

• Point: One limitation of biological explanations for atypical gender development is that they suffer from biological determinism & reductionism.

• Evidence: For example, Rekers found that in 70 gender dysphoric boys, none showed biological causes but all lacked a stereotypical male role model.

• Explain: This suggests that by solely focusing on innate factors (e.g. BSTc), biological explanations ignore other valuable explanations, such as Ovesey & Person’s psychoanalytic theory.

• Link: Overall, biological explanations lack a holistic view of gender development & ignores individual differences & free will in gender identity formation.