BIOL 260 Exam 1

Anatomy

The branch of biology that studies the science of body forms (aka structures) and relationships between them

Gross (macroscopic) anatomy

The study of anatomical structures visible to the naked eye, including organs and organ systems.

Microscopic anatomy

The branch of anatomy that deals with structures that cannot be seen with the naked eye and require magnification, such as cells and tissues.

Cytology

Study of the structure and function of individual cells

Physiology

The branch of biology that studies the science of body functions

What are the levels of organization

Atom

Molecule

organelle

Cell Tissue

Organ

System

Organism

Molecules

Made up of two or more atoms sharing electrons

Atoms

The smallest unit of matter that can participate in chemical reactions

• Made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

• Nonliving

Macromolecules

The largest molecules, such as proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids

What atoms are essential for maintaining life?

Ca, P, N, O, C, S, and H

Cells

Made up of molecules coming together

• Smallest living element of an organism that carry out all the basic functions of life

Which of the following INCORRECTLY pairs the
structure with the organization level?
A. Lipid = macromolecule
B. Neuron = cell
C. Nitrogen = molecule
D. Nucleus = organelle

C. Nitrogen = molecule

Tissues

Groups of cells and the materials around them that work together to perform a particular function

Four basic tissue types are?

Epithelial tissue - covers body surfaces, lines body cavities, and forms glands.

Connective tissue - supports, binds, and protects other tissues and organs (e.g., bone, blood, fat, cartilage).

Muscle tissue - specialized for contraction and movement (skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle).

Nervous tissue - specialized for communication and control by transmitting electrical impulses (neurons and supporting glial cells)

Organs

Made up of at least two different types of tissues joined together

• They have specific functions and usually have recognizable shapes

• Skin is biggest organ

• A single tissue can belong to two organ systems

Organ system

A group of organs with a common function

• Some are categorized into several different organ systems

What are the eleven human organ systems?

Integumentary

Skeletal

Muscular (aka musculoskeletal)

Nervous

Endocrine

Cardiovascular

Lymphoid

Respiratory

Digestive

Urinary

Genital

What is organismal organization?

Any living individual

• All parts of the human body functioning together

A group of organs responsible for the filtration
of blood and excretion of liquid waste would
mostly likely be called the:
A. Digestive system
B. Endocrine system
C. Musculoskeletal system
D. Urinary system

D. Urinary system

Metabolism

Sum of all chemical process that occur in the body

• two types:

  • Catabolism: Reactions that break complex molecules into smaller ones

  • Anabolism: Reactions that build complex molecules from smaller ones

Cellular composition

Living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells

Responsiveness

Ability to detect and respond to changes to maintain homeostasis

Movement

Motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and tiny structures inside cells

Development

All of the changes the body goes through in life

• Two major processes:

  • Differentiation: Transformation of cells with no specialized function into cells that are committed to a particular task

  • Growth: Increase in size or number of cells, contributing to overall body mass.

Reproduction

Formation of new cells for tissue growth, repair, or replacement, or the production of a new individual

Evolution

Living species exhibit genetic change from generation to generation (only seen in population, not individual)

Variation

Differences in traits among individuals within a population, often due to genetic differences.

Homeostasis

Tendency of a living body to maintain relatively stable internal conditions in spite of great changes in its external environment

• Set point: The physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates

• Dynamic equilibrium: Fluctuation around the set point as the body maintains homeostasis

Intracellular fluid

The fluid found inside cells, crucial for cellular processes and maintaining homeostasis.

• Cytosol

Extracellular fluid

Fluid found outside cells, playing a key role in nutrient transport and waste removal.

• Interstitial, blood plasma, lymph plasma

What can a disruption in homeostasis cause?

Disruptions in homeostasis can lead to diseases, dysfunctions, or a failure of normal physiological processes, ultimately affecting health and survival.

________ and ________ systems work together to restore internal environment balance

Nervous, Endocrine

• Nervous systems use nerve impulses

• Endocrine system uses hormones

Three parts of the feedback systems

1. Receptor (or sensor) = Detects change

2. Control center = sets range of controlled conditions; processes the information, relates it, and makes a decision about what the appropriate response should be

3. Effector = produces response

Negative feedback and example

Self-corrective mechanism; bodily change is detected and responses are activated that reverse the change and restore

• Ex: Blood pressure

  • Baroreceptor detects pressure decrease

  • brain receives signal and triggers nerve impulses to heart

  • Heart rate increases to increase BP

Positive feedback and example

Self-amplifying; physiological change leads to an even greater change int he same direction

• Ex: Childbirth

  • Pressure on cervix from contractions detected by nerve receptors

  • Brain receives signal and triggers secretion of oxytocin hormone

  • Oxytocin increases strength of uterine contractions

Hydrochloric acid and pepsin are enzymes secreted by
cells in your stomach to digest proteins. The presence
of partially digested protein in the stomach triggers
the secretion of more hydrochloric acid and pepsin.
Thus, once digestion begins, it becomes a self-
accelerating process.
A. Negative feedback
B. Positive feedback

B. Positive feedback

Human hiearchy

1. The organism is composed of organ system s

2. Organ systems are composed of organs

3. Organs are composed of tissues

4. Tissues are composed of cells

5. Cells are composed of partly organelles

6. Organelles are composed of molecules

7. molecules are composed of atoms

Types of inspections

Palpitation: Feeling a structure with the hands

Auscultation: Listening to the natural sounds made by the body

Percussion: Tapping on the body and feeling for abnormal resistance; pockets of air

Dissection: Cutting and separating tissues to reveal their relationshops

Lying down as two positions; they are?

Prone: Face-down orientation

Supine: Face-up orientation

Anterior (ventral)

Front; toward the front

• Ex: Toes are anterior to the foot

Posterior (dorsal)

Back; toward the back

• Ex: Buttocks is posterior to the patella

Superior (cranial)

Above; toward the head - rarely used for limbs

• Ex: Oris is superior to abdomen

Inferior (caudal)

Below; toward the feet or around the tail

• Ex: Pelvis is inferior to the abdomen

Lateral

The side; toward side of the body

• Ex: The thumb is lateral to the digits

Medial

Middle; toward the middle of the body

• Ex: The sternum is medial to the ribs

Proximal

Closer to the point of attachment or trunk of the body

• Ex: The elbow is proximal to the wrist.

Distal

Farther from the point of attachment or trunk of the body

• Ex: The fingers are distal to the wrist.

Superficial

Position closer to the surface (skin)

• Ex: The skin is superficial to the bones

Deep

Position farther from the surface of the body

• Ex: The brain is deep to the skull

Sagittal

Divides the body or an organ vertically into left and right

• Midsagittal (median): equal right and left sides

• Parasagittal (longitudinal: unequal right and left sides

Frontal (coronal)

Divide into anterior and posterior position

Transverse

Divides the body or organ horizontally into upper and lower portions

Oblique

Any type of angle other than horizontal or vertical

Body cavities: Dorsal (posterior)

• Cranial cavity: Houses the brain - protected by the cranium

• Vertebral canal: Encloses the spinal cord

  • protected by skull, vertebral column, and cerebrospinal fluid

Cerebrospinal fluid

A clear fluid that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord, providing cushioning and nutritional support.

Body cavities: Anterior (ventral)

• Thoracic: More superior subdivision. Enclosed by the rib cage and contains the lungs and heart

  • Diaphragm: forms floor of the thoracic cavity

Abdominal cavity

Largest cavity in the body

• Protects the digestive organs, spleen, kidneys, urinary bladder, rectum, and reproductive organs

• Lined by peritoneum membrane lining

Pleural cavity

The thin space between the visceral and parietal pleura surrounding each lung, which contains pleural fluid to reduce friction during breathing.

Pericardial cavity

Cavity surrounding the heart, provides a protective environment and contains fluid to reduce friction during heart movements.

Pelvic cavity

The space bounded by the pelvic bones, containing the reproductive organs, urinary bladder, and distal part of the gastrointestinal tract.

Label the abdominal regions and quadrants

Membranes of the anterior (ventral) body cavity

Parietal layers: lines the walls of the body cavity - more superficial layer

Visceral layers: covers the organs

Serous membrane

a thin layer of tissue that covers the walls and organs in the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

What are the 3 serous cavities + associated membranes

Pleura: covers the lungs Pericardium: covers the heart Peritoneum: covers abdominal organs

Axial region

Consists of the head, neck, and trunk

Trunk region

2 regions

• Thoracic: above the diaphragm

• Abdominal: below the diaphragm

Systems of protection, support, and movement

Integumentary system

Skeletal system

Muscular system

Systems of internal communication and control

Nervous system

Endocrine system

Systems of fluid transport

Circulatory system

Lymphatic system

Systems of intake and output

Respiratory system

Urinary system

Digestive system

Systems of reproduction

Male reproductive system

Female reproductive system

Principal organs and functions: Integumentary system

Organs: Skin, hair, nails, cutaneous glands

Function: protection, water retention, thermoregulation, vitamin D synthesis, nonverbal communication

Principal organs and functions: Skeletal system

Organs: bones, cartilage, ligaments

Function: support, movement, protective enclosure of viscera, blood formation, mineral storage, electrolyte and acid-base balance

Principal organs and functions: Muscular system

Organs: skeletal muscles

Function: Movement, stability, communication, control of body openings, heat production

Principal organs and functions: Lymphoid system

Organs: lymph nodes, lymphatic vessels, thymus, spleen, tonsils

Function: recovery of excess tissue fluid, detection of pathogens, production of immune cells, defense against disease

Principal organs and functions: Repiratory system

Organs: Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

Function: absorption of oxygen, discharge of carbon dioxide, acid-base balance, speech

Principal organs and functions: Urinary system

Organs: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

Function: elimination of wastes; regulation of blood volume and pressure; stimulation of red blood cell formation; control of fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balancer detoxification

Principal organs and functions: Nervous system

Organs: brain, spinal cord, nerves, ganglia

Function: rapid internal communication, coordination, motor control and sensation

Principal organs and functions: Endocrine system

Organs: pituitary gland, pineal gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, thymus, adrenal glands, pancreas, testes, ovaries

Function: hormone production, internal chemical communication

Principal organs and functions: Circulatory system

Organs: heart, blood vessels

Function: distribution of nutrients, oxygen, wastes, hormones, electrolytes, heat, immune cells, and antibodies; acid-base balance

Principal organs and functions: Digestive system

Organs: teeth, tongue, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

Function: nutrient breakdown and absorption. liver functions include metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins; disposal of drugs, toxins, and hormones; cleansing of blood

Principal organs and functions: Male reproductive system

Organs: testes, epididymides, spermatic ducts, seminal vesicles, prostate, bulbourethral glands, penis

Function: production and delivery of sperm; secretion of sex hormones

Principal organs and functions: Female reproductive system

Organs: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands

Function: production of eggs, site of fertilization and fetal development; fetal nourishment; birth; lactation; secretion of sex hormones

In anatomical position they are:

• Standing upright

• Facing the observer, head level

• Eyes facing forward

• Feet flat on the floor

• Arms at the sides

• Palms turned forward

Gradient

A difference in a chemical concentration, electrical change, physical pressure, temperature, or other variables between one point and another

Down the gradient

Matter or energy moves from the point of higher value to the lower point

• high to low

Up the gradient

Matter or energy moves form the point of lower value to the higher point

• low to high

Pressure gradient

High pressure to low pressure

• unkinking a water hose

Electrical, concentration, and thermal gradient

Electrical: The difference in electric potential

Concentration: The difference in solute concentration

Thermal: The difference in temperature across a distance

Chemical element

Simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties

• cannot be broken down or created by ordinary chemical means

Matter

Anything that occupies space and has mass

• All living and nonliving things consist of matter

Mass

The amount of matter in any object

• mass does not change

Weight

The force of gravity acting on matter

Major elements vs Lesser elements vs Trace elements

Make up 96% body weight

• includes oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen

Make up about 3.6% body weight

• includes calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, and iron

Present in tiny amounts; 0.7% body weight

• Iodine, copper, and zinc

Isotopes

Atoms of an element that have different #’s of neutrons and therefore different mass numbers

Electron shell vs Valence electrons

Electron shell shows where an electron could be

Valence electrons are those in the outer shell that can participate in chemical reactions and determines the likelihood that an atom will form a chemical bond with another atom

Mass number

Sum of its protons and neutrons

Compound vs Ion

A substance that can be broken down into 2 or more different elements

An atom with an electrical charge

Cation vs Anion

Cation: Atom that has lost an electron (positive charge)

Anion: Atom that has gained an electron (negative charge)

Cohesion vs Adhesion vs Surface tension

Cohesion: Attraction between like molecules; results in surface tension.

Adhesion: Attraction between different molecules; helps liquid stick to surfaces.

Surface tension: Measure of the difficulty of stretching or breaking the surface of a liquid