Psych 105-study guide

How have views of psychology changed over time? How have they stayed the same?

Early psychology focused on introspection (structuralism) and the unconscious (psychoanalysis), philosophy. Behaviorism shifted focus to observable behavior, later evolving into cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and biopsychology.

Stayed the Same: Psychology still studies behavior, mental processes, and treatments for disorders, using scientific methods and adapting to new research.

Why is it that the news media is not a good source for scientific truth?

The news media often sensationalizes findings, oversimplifies complex studies, and lacks scientific rigor. It may misinterpret data, ignore limitations, or prioritize clicks over accuracy. Always check peer-reviewed sources for reliable scientific truth

How does the entertainment media create and support misunderstandings of mental
health professionals? About patients/clients?

About Mental Health Professionals: Entertainment media often portrays therapists as unethical, overly personal with clients, or offering instant cures. It may depict them as mind readers or overly dramatic, misrepresenting real therapeutic practices.

About Patients/Clients: Media frequently stereotypes mental illness, showing people as dangerous, unpredictable, or hopeless. It oversimplifies conditions, reinforcing stigma and discouraging help-seeking.

How does the entertainment media create and support misunderstandings of
patients/clients?

Entertainment media often stereotypes mental illness, portraying patients as violent, unpredictable, or hopeless. It oversimplifies disorders, exaggerates symptoms for drama, and reinforces stigma, making real struggles seem less valid or treatable.

What is the public paradox?

The public paradox refers to the contradiction where people value the benefits of psychological science (e.g., mental health treatment, self-improvement) but mistrust psychologists or reject scientific findings when they conflict with personal beliefs or media portrayals.

How did religion contribute to the early development of psychology?

Religion influenced early psychology by shaping views on the mind, soul, and behavior. Ancient religious texts explored morality, consciousness, and mental illness, often attributing disorders to spiritual causes. Early scholars like St. Augustine and Descartes linked the soul to human thought, influencing later psychological theories.

How did philosophy contribute to the early development of psychology?

Philosophy laid the foundation for psychology by exploring mind-body dualism (Descartes), empiricism (Locke), and rationalism (Kant). It introduced key questions about consciousness, perception, and knowledge, which later shaped psychological theories and scientific methods.

How did biology contribute to the early development of psychology?

Biology contributed to psychology by highlighting the role of the brain and nervous system in behavior. Charles Darwin's theory of evolution influenced ideas about instincts and behavior. Physiologists like William James and Hermann von Helmholtz linked biological processes to mental functions, paving the way for neuroscience and behavioral psychology.

How did psychology’s history undermine confidence in psychological science?

Psychology’s history undermined confidence due to early reliance on unscientific methods like introspection and subjective theories (e.g., psychoanalysis), which lacked empirical support. Additionally, contradictory theories and lack of consensus among early psychologists led to skepticism about its scientific validity.

How did psychology’s history foster misunderstandings about people suffering from
mental illness?

Psychology's history fostered misunderstandings of mental illness by relying on outdated, stigmatizing theories like possession or moral weakness. Early treatments were often inhumane, such as asylums and lobotomies, reinforcing negative stereotypes. Additionally, psychoanalytic theories often pathologized normal behaviors, leading to misdiagnoses and marginalization of those with mental health struggles.

How did psychology’s history undermine confidence in treatments for mental illness?

Psychology’s history undermined confidence in treatments due to early, ineffective methods like lobotomies, shock therapy, and frequent reliance on unproven theories (e.g., psychoanalysis). Inconsistent treatments, lack of scientific evidence, and the use of harmful practices caused people to question the reliability and safety of mental health care.

What is the mind–body debate? Why is it important?

The mind-body debate concerns whether the mind (thoughts, consciousness) and the body (brain, physical processes) are separate entities or if they are interconnected. This debate is important because it shapes how we understand mental health, consciousness, and the biological basis of behavior, influencing fields like psychology, neuroscience, and medicine.

Which one do you believe is more correct, monism or dualism? Why?

• Dualism (e.g., Descartes) argues that the mind and body are separate entities, with the mind being non-physical and the body being physical. This view allows for the idea that consciousness and mental states are independent of the brain's physical processes.

• Monism suggests that the mind and body are interconnected and that mental processes arise from the physical brain. Many modern psychologists and neuroscientists lean toward materialistic monism, viewing consciousness as a product of brain activity.

Which approach to monism do you believe is the most correct? Why?

• Materialistic Monism (or Physicalism) holds that everything, including the mind, can be explained by physical processes. This approach is supported by most neuroscientific evidence, which shows that mental states correlate strongly with brain activity.

• Idealism suggests that reality is mentally constructed or immaterial, with consciousness being the primary substance. This view is less commonly accepted in modern science but has philosophical merit.

• Neutral Monism proposes that both mind and body are manifestations of the same underlying substance, which is neither purely mental nor purely physical.

Among these, materialistic monism is the most widely accepted in contemporary psychology and neuroscience because it aligns with the wealth of research showing the brain's direct influence on behavior and mental states. However, neutral monism is also gaining attention for addressing the mind-body relationship in ways that don't strictly favor one over the other.

Which approach to dualism do you believe is the most correct? Why?

property dualism is often considered more plausible than other dualist approaches. It suggests that the mind and body are made of the same substance but have different properties—mental and physical—allowing for the connection between brain activity and conscious experience without requiring entirely separate substances, as in substance dualism. This view better aligns with modern theories of consciousness and brain science.

Why does research suggest that children are natural dualists?

Research suggests that children are natural dualists because they tend to distinguish between the mind and body from an early age. Studies show that children understand the mind as something separate from the physical body, often attributing thoughts, desires, and emotions to a "non-material" self or soul, even before they fully understand biological processes. This natural inclination toward dualism is thought to reflect intuitive beliefs about consciousness and the self that are shaped by both cultural and cognitive factors.

What is the bodily continuity theory?

The bodily continuity theory posits that personal identity is maintained through the continuity of the body over time. According to this theory, as long as the physical body remains largely intact, a person remains the same individual, even if their mental states or consciousness change. It emphasizes the biological aspects of identity, such as the persistence of the body and brain.

What is the psychological continuity theory?

The psychological continuity theory suggests that personal identity is maintained through the continuity of psychological attributes over time, such as memory, consciousness, and personality. According to this theory, a person remains the same as long as their psychological characteristics (e.g., memories, thoughts) persist, even if their physical body changes or they experience memory loss. It emphasizes the mind and consciousness as key to personal identity.

Why does Derek Parfit argue that it is possible to have psychological continuity without
personal identity

Derek Parfit argues that it’s possible to have psychological continuity without personal identity because personal identity is not as important as psychological connections. He suggests that if a person’s psychological attributes (memories, personality, etc.) are preserved across time, they can remain the same in a psychological sense, even if the exact continuity of the self (as a singular, unchanging entity) is not present. In other words, psychological continuity can exist through time without requiring a fixed, unbroken identity, challenging traditional views of personal identity being tied to a single, consistent self.

How are Hobbes’s and Freud’s views of human nature similar?

Both Hobbes and Freud view human nature as fundamentally driven by irrational, instinctual desires. Hobbes believed humans are motivated by self-interest and survival instincts, leading to conflict unless controlled by society. Similarly, Freud argued that behavior is driven by unconscious desires and instincts, particularly related to sexuality and aggression. Both see humans as inherently self-centered and in need of external control (government or societal structures in Hobbes's case, and the superego in Freud's case) to prevent chaos.

How are Locke’s and behaviorists' views of human nature similar?

Locke and behaviorists both view human nature as shaped by experience rather than innate traits. Locke's tabula rasa theory suggests the mind is a blank slate, with all knowledge coming from sensory experience. Similarly, behaviorists argue that behavior is learned through environmental stimuli and reinforcement, without the need for innate mental structures. Both emphasize the importance of external influences in shaping human behavior and knowledge.

How are Rousseau’s and humanists' views of human nature similar?

Rousseau and humanists both believe that humans are inherently good and have the potential for growth and self-fulfillment. Rousseau argued that people are born with a natural sense of compassion and that society corrupts this natural goodness. Similarly, humanists, like Maslow and Rogers, emphasize the importance of self-actualization and believe that individuals have an inherent drive toward personal growth and positive development when provided with the right conditions. Both reject the idea that humans are inherently selfish or evil.

How does Freud’s view of the mind differ from the behaviorists' view?

Freud’s view of the mind differs from behaviorists' views in that Freud emphasized the importance of unconscious processes, internal conflicts, and instincts (like sexual and aggressive drives) in shaping behavior. He believed that much of human behavior is driven by hidden, irrational forces.

In contrast, behaviorists focus on observable behavior and believe that all behaviors are learned through interactions with the environment, such as conditioning. They reject the idea of unconscious mental states, focusing instead on external stimuli and reinforcement as the primary drivers of behavior.

How does Freud’s view of the mind differ from the humanists' view

Freud’s view of the mind differs from humanists' views in that Freud emphasized unconscious drives (such as sexual and aggressive instincts) and internal conflict as central to human behavior, often focusing on pathology and the darker aspects of the mind. He believed that repressed desires and unresolved conflicts shaped personality and behavior.

In contrast, humanists like Maslow and Rogers focus on the inherent goodness of humans, emphasizing self-actualization and personal growth. Humanists believe that people are motivated by a desire for fulfillment, positive self-development, and a sense of purpose, with an emphasis on conscious, positive experiences rather than unconscious drives.

What is klecksography? How did Jung’s ideas influence Rorschach?

Klecksography is the art of creating images or drawings by making inkblot patterns, often used in psychological analysis. It involves interpreting symmetrical inkblots to explore unconscious aspects of the mind, similar to the Rorschach test.

Jung's ideas influenced Rorschach by highlighting the significance of archetypes and symbolic imagery in the unconscious mind. Jung believed that certain universal symbols could reveal deeper, unconscious processes, which is reflected in Rorschach's use of ambiguous inkblots to tap into the subconscious and reveal aspects of a person's inner world.

Psychologists typically study personality (aka human nature) in two broad ways. What
are they?

Psychologists typically study personality in two broad ways:

1. Idiographic Approach – Focuses on understanding the unique aspects of an individual’s personality, often using case studies or in-depth interviews to explore personal experiences and traits.

2. Nomothetic Approach – Seeks to identify general laws or traits that apply to large groups of people, using standardized measures (e.g., personality inventories) to identify patterns and similarities across individuals.

According to Freud, our personalities are largely shaped by what?

According to Freud, our personalities are largely shaped by unconscious drives and early childhood experiences, particularly those involving sexual and aggressive instincts. Freud believed that the dynamics between the id (instinctual drives), ego (rational thought), and superego (moral conscience) during childhood development play a key role in forming personality.

According to Freud, our minds are divided into three interacting parts. What are they?
How would you describe each? Look back at "Psychological Misconceptions: Recent
Scientific Advances and Unresolved Issues." Do you think the id is more like Type 1 or
Type 2 processing? Explain.

Freud's three interacting parts of the mind are:

1. Id – The unconscious part that operates based on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of desires and urges, without regard for reality or consequences.

2. Ego – The conscious part that operates based on the reality principle, mediating between the desires of the id and the constraints of the external world. It uses rational thought to navigate the complexities of reality.

3. Superego – The moral part that internalizes societal values and norms, striving for perfection and acting as a conscience by enforcing ethical standards and guilt.

Regarding the id and Type 1/Type 2 processing: The id is more similar to Type 1 processing, which is fast, automatic, and driven by impulses. Type 1 thinking is intuitive and effortless, much like the id's desire for immediate gratification without consideration of consequences. Type 2 processing, on the other hand, is deliberate, slow, and involves careful thought, which aligns more with the ego's rationality and logical decision-making.

According to Freud, anxiety comes, in part, from what? How does the ego protect itself
from this?

According to Freud, anxiety arises in part from the conflict between the id, the ego, and the superego. The id's instinctual desires may clash with the superego's moral standards, while the ego is caught trying to balance both. Anxiety results from this internal conflict when the ego struggles to mediate these opposing forces.

To protect itself from anxiety, the ego uses defense mechanisms, such as:

- Repression – Pushing distressing thoughts and memories into the unconscious.

- Denial – Refusing to accept reality or the existence of unpleasant feelings.

- Projection – Attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts to others.

- Rationalization – Creating logical but false explanations for behaviors.

- Displacement – Redirecting emotions from the original source to a safer target.

What is Repression? Regression? Reaction formation? Projection? Rationalization?
Displacement? Denial?

Here are the defense mechanisms Freud described:

1. Repression – Unconsciously blocking distressing thoughts, feelings, or memories from awareness. For example, forgetting a traumatic event.

2. Regression – Reverting to an earlier stage of development or behavior to cope with anxiety. For example, an adult acting childishly when stressed.

3. Reaction Formation – Acting in the opposite way to one’s true feelings to prevent anxiety. For example, overly praising someone you actually dislike.

4. Projection – Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, or impulses to someone else. For example, accusing someone of being angry when you're actually angry yourself.

5. Rationalization – Creating logical but false explanations to justify behaviors or thoughts that would otherwise be unacceptable. For example, justifying cheating by saying "everyone does it."

6. Displacement – Redirecting emotions from a threatening target to a less threatening one. For example, taking out frustration from work by yelling at family members.

7. Denial – Refusing to accept reality or facts that cause anxiety. For example, denying the seriousness of a health problem despite clear evidence.

According to Freud, what is a fixation and why does it matter?

According to Freud, a fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier stage of psychosexual development due to unresolved conflicts or unmet needs during that stage. Freud believed that if a child does not receive proper satisfaction at a specific stage (e.g., oral, anal, phallic), they may become fixated and carry these unresolved issues into adulthood, affecting their personality and behavior.

For example:

- A fixation at the oral stage might lead to behaviors like excessive eating or smoking.

- A fixation at the anal stage might result in being overly neat or, conversely, disorganized.

Fixations matter because they can influence adult personality traits and psychological issues, often manifesting in neuroses or maladaptive behaviors.

According to Jung, what is the collective unconscious?

According to Jung, the collective unconscious is a part of the unconscious mind shared by all humans, containing universal memories, symbols, and archetypes that have been inherited from our ancestors. These shared elements are not shaped by personal experience but are part of our evolutionary heritage.

Jung believed that the collective unconscious influences behaviors, dreams, and myths, and is reflected in archetypes such as the Hero, the Shadow, and the Anima/Animus, which represent universal patterns of human experience and psychology.

Did Alfred Adler agree with Freud completely? Explain? Do you think Adler would have
been more likely to agree with Plato's or Aristotle’s description of madness? Explain.

Alfred Adler did not agree completely with Freud. While both were early members of the psychoanalytic movement, Adler differed in his view of human motivation. Freud emphasized the role of unconscious sexual and aggressive drives, while Adler focused on the individual's sense of inferiority and the desire to overcome it. Adler believed that striving for superiority and social interest were central to human development, not just repressed desires. He also disagreed with Freud's emphasis on the sexual basis of psychological issues, proposing instead that social factors and feelings of inferiority were more important.

Regarding madness, Adler would likely align more with Aristotle's description. Aristotle viewed mental illness as rooted in imbalance or dysfunction in the body's physical processes and emotional responses. Adler also believed that mental health issues could arise from social factors like feeling powerless or disconnected from others, and he emphasized the role of individual agency in overcoming struggles. In contrast, Plato often saw madness as a divine influence or an emotional disorder, which Adler would not have fully agreed with, as he emphasized more human-centered explanations.

What did the humanistic theorists focus on?

Humanistic theorists focused on the individual's potential for personal growth, self-actualization, and the positive aspects of human nature. They emphasized the importance of free will, conscious choice, and personal responsibility in shaping behavior and personality. Humanistic psychology views people as inherently good and capable of achieving their highest potential when given the right environment.

Key figures like Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers focused on concepts like:

- Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (with self-actualization at the top).

- Rogers' concept of unconditional positive regard and the importance of a supportive environment for self-growth.

Humanistic theorists believed in the ability of individuals to overcome obstacles and realize their true potential.

What is self-actualization? Self-transcendence?

Self-actualization is the process of realizing and fulfilling one’s true potential and innate abilities. It involves achieving personal growth, creativity, and authenticity, and reaching the highest level of psychological functioning. This concept is central to Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, where it represents the fulfillment of personal desires after more basic needs (such as safety, belonging, and esteem) have been met.

Self-transcendence goes beyond self-actualization, referring to the process of reaching a higher level of consciousness or connecting with something greater than oneself. It involves seeking meaning or purpose in life, often through spirituality, compassion, or helping others. Self-transcendence emphasizes growth that moves beyond personal goals to embrace a broader, more altruistic or universal perspective.

According to Carl Rogers, what are the three conditions for an optimal growth
environment? Explain each.

According to Carl Rogers, the three conditions for an optimal growth environment are:

1. Genuineness (Congruence) – The therapist or person in the relationship must be authentic and transparent, expressing their true feelings and thoughts. This openness creates trust and helps others feel comfortable being authentic themselves.

2. Unconditional Positive Regard – This condition involves offering acceptance, care, and respect without judgment or conditions. It means supporting someone for who they are, not based on their actions or behaviors, fostering a sense of worth and self-esteem.

3. Empathy – The ability to deeply understand and share another person's feelings. This involves truly listening to the other person and showing that you understand their emotional experience, creating a supportive and validating environment.

These conditions allow individuals to feel safe and supported, promoting personal growth and self-actualization.

Behaviorism is based on what proposition?

Behaviorism is based on the proposition that behavior is learned through interactions with the environment, and that all behaviors are a result of conditioning rather than innate or internal processes. According to behaviorism, observable behavior is the focus of study, as it can be measured and shaped through stimulus-response associations, without needing to consider internal thoughts, emotions, or unconscious factors. Key figures like B.F. Skinner and John Watson argued that behaviors can be influenced through reinforcement and punishment (operant and classical conditioning).

Why can behaviorism be seen as a form of materialism?

Behaviorism can be seen as a form of materialism because it focuses exclusively on observable behaviors and the physical aspects of behavior, rather than on internal mental states or consciousness. Materialism is the belief that everything, including mental processes, can be explained in terms of physical matter and physical phenomena.

Since behaviorism dismisses the need to study the mind, thoughts, or emotions, and instead focuses on stimuli and responses, it aligns with the materialist view that all behavior is a result of environmental factors and biological processes, without invoking any non-material or mental phenomena.

According to behaviorism, all behavior is determined by what?

According to behaviorism, all behavior is determined by environmental stimuli and learning experiences. Behavior is shaped through conditioning—either classical conditioning (associating stimuli) or operant conditioning (reinforcement or punishment). Behaviorism holds that individuals are not driven by internal thoughts or feelings, but instead respond to external stimuli in predictable ways, and behavior can be shaped or modified by changes in the environment.

What are the criticisms of behaviorism?

Criticisms of behaviorism include:

1. Neglect of internal mental processes – Behaviorism focuses solely on observable behavior, ignoring the role of thoughts, emotions, and cognitive processes, which are essential to understanding human behavior.

2. Oversimplification of human behavior – Critics argue that behaviorism reduces complex human experiences to simple stimulus-response mechanisms, failing to account for the nuances and individual differences in behavior.

3. Determinism – Behaviorism suggests that behavior is entirely shaped by the environment, which raises concerns about free will and the potential for personal agency.

4. Ethical concerns – The emphasis on conditioning through reinforcement and punishment has raised ethical questions, particularly regarding the manipulation of behavior without regard for the individual's autonomy.

5. Lack of focus on development – Behaviorism doesn't adequately address the role of biological maturation or the importance of developmental stages in shaping behavior over time.

Overall, critics argue that behaviorism oversimplifies the complexities of human nature and disregards the importance of the mind in shaping behavior.

Behaviorism was developed to counter what?

Behaviorism was developed to counter introspection and the subjective methods of earlier psychological approaches, particularly structuralism and functionalism. These approaches focused on studying the mind through internal reflection and unobservable mental states, which behaviorists like John Watson and B.F. Skinner believed were unreliable and not scientifically rigorous.

Behaviorism emphasized the importance of studying observable behavior that could be measured and objectively analyzed, arguing that psychology should be an empirical science based on external stimuli and responses, rather than abstract mental processes.

What is behavior therapy? Is it relevant today?

Behavior therapy is a type of psychotherapy that focuses on changing maladaptive behaviors by applying principles of learning theory, particularly classical and operant conditioning. It involves techniques such as reinforcement, punishment, exposure therapy, and modeling to modify behavior. The goal is to help individuals unlearn negative behaviors and replace them with more adaptive ones.

Yes, behavior therapy is still very relevant today. It has evolved and is widely used in various forms, including cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), which integrates cognitive techniques with behavior therapy. It is highly effective in treating a variety of conditions, including anxiety disorders, phobias, OCD, addictions, and depression, and is often considered a gold standard treatment.