The 'Golden Age' of the Weimar Republic, 1924-28

which coalition collapsed after the hyperinflation crisis and which replaced it?

the government of Cuno collapsed and was replaced by a coalition headed by Stresemann - the ‘great coalition’

3 key steps Stresemann took to bringing inflation under control

ending passive resistance

issuing a new currency

balancing the budget

the end of passive resistance

it was a serious risk and was even a cause of the Munich putsch

it was necessary to stop paying the workers who weren’t working, as it reduced government expenditure

the issuing of a new currency

Rentenmark replaced the worthless Papiermark

one Rentenmark = one trillion old marks

government kept tight control on the amount in circulation

in 1924 the Rentenmark became the Reichsmark, backed by the German gold reserve

this happened under the direction of Hjalmar Schacht

balancing the budget

cut expendigture and raised tax

300,000 civil servants lost their job

effects of these changes

well run companies that did not have debt prospered

companies in debt suffered - 6000 went bankrupt in 1924

the Dawes plan

passed in April 1924 - Stresemann’s government was no longer in control but he was foreign secretary and took the credit for this

confirmed the figure for reparations as £6.6 billion

agreed Germany would pay less annually for the next 5 years (when the situation would be reassessed)

Germany were to receive a loan of 800 million marks from the USA

Stresemann believed the plan was just an ‘economic armistice’

right wing groups were furious with the compromise

French troops left the Ruhr when it became clear Germany would begin to repay reparations

industry

US loans helped stimulate the economy

output grew after 1924 but did not reach pre-war levels until 1929

growth rates were unsteady

smaller firms formed cartels (e.g. 90% of Germany’s coal and steel production) - reduced competition but allowed profits to be reinvested

car industry developed but cars were still too expensive for the average German

housing was a big issue to deal with - in 1926 there were over 200,000 new homes

improvement in living standards for ordinary German workers - small wage increases

limits to the economic recovery

‘Germany is dancing on a volcano’ - Gustav Stresemann

1925 - unemployment was 1 million

1926 - over 3 million

workforces were being reduced to decrease expenditure - particular problem in the mining industry

the Mittelstand gained very little - bankrupted by hyperinflation and did not experience wage increases

agriculture

farmers gained very little in the ‘Golden Age’

worldwide agricultural depression meant food prices were low

small farmers had their savings wiped out during hyperinflation crisis

after 1923, government made it easier to borrow money - worsened things as prices were low meaning they could not repay loans

a global grain surplus in 1925 caused further price slumps

farmers were bankrupt and being forced to pay loans

caused small-scale riots in 1929

young plan

1929

germanny would continue to pay reparations until 1988

total reparations bill was reduced to £1.8 billion

Britain and France agreed to leave the Rhineland in 1930

reaction to the young plan

despite the positive effects for Germany the plan still infuriated nationalist groups

DNVP leader Alfred Hugenberg launched a campaign against the plan, which the Nazis joined - demanded a referendum which would ensure the government had the war guilt clause removed and whoever signed it be tried for treason & immediate evacuation of occupied areas - petition attracted over 4 million signatures

this meant it was discussed in the Reichstag & put to a referendum but the ‘freedom law’ was decisively defeated - however, the fact over 5 million voted in favour was an indication of the vast support nationalism had

Also, gave Hitler somewhat of a platform due to his involvement in the campaign

social welfare reforms 1924-27

1924 - the Public Assistance system, which provided help to the poor, was modernised

1925 - the state accident insurance system, set up to help those injured at work, was extended to suffer those suffering from occupational diseases

1927 - a national unemployment insurance system was introduced to provide benefits for the unemployed

limitations of social reforms

promised more than it delivered

very expensive

the state was already trying to help 2 million + people affected by the war

those who were administering benefits at local level used devices to keep expenditure down

those in need of support felt they were being insulted, causing a loss of support for the Republic

3 groups affected by social and cultural developments

women

youth

Jews

the ‘new woman’

free, independent, sexually liberated and increasingly visible in public life

equal in voting rights and in right to education - thanks to constitution

less men due to death in WWI meant there was less opportunity for women to follow the conventional path of marrying and having children

more women in paid employment due to war

flapper movement came to Germany - women encouraged to be more promiscuous, shorter haircuts, more ‘revealing’ clothing and smoking

limits to the extent of change for women

Civil code of 1896 remained in place - laid down that in marriage the husband had the right to decide on all matters concerning family life - including whether his wife should be employed

BDF- popular women’s group with 900,000 members, promoted traditional family values & maternal responsibilities

right wing political parties and church were alarmed by the changes and considered them a threat to family - seen when Nazis came to power

demonstrates that not everyone supported the idea of the ‘new woman’ and it may be considered a myth

3 ways of assessing the myth of the ‘new woman’

employment

sexual freedom

politics and public life

employment: the myth of the ‘new woman’ vs reality

the myth of the ‘new woman’:

• the constitution gave women equal rights in employment

• by 1925, 36% of the workforce were women

• by 1933, 100,000 women teachers and 3000 women doctors

the reality:

• the ‘demobilisation’ law after the war required women to leave their jobs so ex-soldiers could be employed

• in many occupations, women were required to give up their employment when they married

• women were paid significantly less than men for doing the same work

• married women who continued to have paid jobs were attacked as ‘double-earners’ and blamed for male unemployment

sexual freedom: the myth of the ‘new woman’ vs the reality

the myth of the ‘new woman’:

• birth control became more widely available and birth rate declined

• divorce rates increased

• there was a rise in the number of abortions, estimated 1 million per year

the reality:

• abortion was a criminal offence and was carried out by unqualified people, estimated 10,000 deaths per year from abortions

• the decline in the birth rate was attacked by the conservative parties

• catholic and protestant churches were vigorously opposed to birth control, divorce and abortion, many German women were committed Christians

politics and public life: the myth of the ‘new woman’ vs the reality

the myth of the ‘new woman’:

• women gained equal voting rights and right to be Reichstag deputies

• more women in Reichstag than in House of Commons

• women were very active in local government

the reality:

• no female representatives on the Reichsrat

• no political party had a female leader

• only the KPD made gender equality a key part of their campaign

• the parties that received the most votes from women (e.g. the centre party) had no care for feminist issues

young people in the Weimar Republic

many turned to a life of crime

those who did not attend gymnasium schools left school at age 14 but there were few apprenticeships or employment opportunities

meaning young people suffered disproportionally in terms of unemployment

therefore many in big cities joined gangs

education

children who wanted to go on to university attended gymnasium schools - mostly upper class children

the system was divided upon class and religion

people wanted to reform the education system and remove these divides - they were partially successful - introduction of elementary schools for first 4 years of education, but reformists failed to remove the influence of religion on education

Jews in the Weimar Republic

500,000 - 1% of the population

80% of them were well-educated

many were patriotic and believed in assimilation (becoming fully integrated in Germany society)

remarkable achievements considering the small population

Jews in politics and the press

2 very successful Jewish newspapers which promoted liberal views

successful Jews in politics included Walther Rathenau, Rosa Luxemburg and Hugo Hasse

Jews in industry, commerce and professions

owned 50% of private banks

owned 18% of banks overall

owned 50% of firms involved in the cloth trade

16% of lawyers

11% of doctors

particularly successful in Berlin

made up 24% of German Noble prize winners - including Einstein

the extent of assimilation and anti-Semitism

many Jews acted the same s Germans in all aspects of life, even married non-Jewish spouses and some converted to Christianity

yet many Germans saw Jews as alien

particularly in the difficult years of the Republic there was a perceived threat of Jewish Bolshevism - the belief that Jews and communists were working together to take down traditional German values

this drove political campaigns from the right wing (e.g. the NSDAP)

during the golden age, anti-Semitism was pushed to the fringes but still Jewish bankers and businessmen were often subject to accusations of corruption (e.g. the Barmat Scandal 1925)

ways in which art and culture changed

nightclubs

art

music

literature

architecture

theatre

film

Berlin’s nightclubs

renowned for nudity

gay men, lesbians and transvestites felt free to express themselves

American jazz music was popular

comedians attacked politicians

art

expressionism

George Grosz and Otto Dix

work expressed emotion rather than physical reality

music

expressionism

conveyed powerful emotions

literature

expressionism

focused on character’s internal mental state

common theme was revolt against parent’s authority

architecture

Bauhaus - students encouraged to use new materials and try new things

theatre

expressionist ideas

attacked capitalism, nationalism and war

left wing made plays attacking middle-classes and making heroes of criminals

attacked by the right as ‘cultural Bolsheviks’

film

developed modern techniques - later exploited for Nazi propaganda

how many elections were there in 1924? what months?

2 - May and December

support for pro-republican parties in 1924 elections

61% in May, 67% in December

support for the Nazis in 1924 elections

6.5% in May, 3% in December

support for the Nazi party in the 1928 elections

2.6%, 12 seats

what could be seen by the political developments in 1924?

democratic parties were struggling to provide stable governments as no one party could gain widespread support

anti-democratic parties had to accept the republic and work within it - the DNVP joined a coalition for the first time in 1925

right wing parties were still in a position to do some damage to the republic

coalition governments 1923-30

there were 7

governments could not plan for the future

government collapsed over minor issues, such as the German flag

the Grand coalition

appeared to be one of the most stable in the Republic’s history lasting from 1928-1930

led by Hermann Muller

however, was fraught with divisions

took until 1929 for the parties to agree on policy

disputed over budget and foreign policy

was only successful because Muller and Stresemann got on well

the SPD in the golden age

committed to democracy

participated in just 1 coalition

too left wing to compromise with other parties in coalitions

close links to trade unions and appealed most to industrial workers

the centre party in the golden age

appealed to more groups than the SPD

no coalition government was formed without their participation

new leader in 1928 was more right wing

DDP in the golden age

in decline

its appeal was academics and professional groups

committed to democracy and participated in all coalitions in this period

the DVP in the golden age

committed to democracy & participated in all coalitions in this period

support amongst academics and industrialists

Stresemann’s party

after his death in 1929, the party drifted more to the right wing

the DNVP in the golden age

broadened its appeal in the 1920s

anti-democratic and nationalist

main aims were restoring the monarchy and reversing the terms of the ToV

generally avoided coalitions, but younger members fought for them to be more compromising so joined 2

suffered in the 1928 elections and switched back to anti-democratic policies, particularly after Hugenberg became head of the party

the NSDAP in the golden age

decline following the Munich putsch (1923)

in prison, Hitler wrote Mein Kampf

he also decided the best way to obtain power was not an armed overthrow but to gain mass support

1927 - 75,000 members

1929 - 150,000 members

campaign against the Young Plan allowed Hitler to make a name for himself

the KPD in the golden age

the largest communist party outside Russia

as a member of the Comintern their policy was dictated by Russians

dedicated to overthrowing the Republic

attacked the SPD as ‘social-fascists’

death of Ebert

February 1925 - meant a presidential election was necessary

1925 presidential election

if no candidate received a majority in the 1st round it would go to a 2nd round

1st round - 7 candidates, Karl Jarres won the most votes but not a majority

2nd round - Jarres withdrew in favour of Hindenburg who was influenced to stand by the ex-Kaiser, 3 candidates - Marx (SPD), Ernst Thalmann (KPD) and Hindenburg

Hindenburg won with 48%

he was seen as a symbol of the past, right saw it as a restoration of old order, seen as a step away from democracy

However, this was not the case, he stuck closely to the constitution and his appointment meant right wing parties (DNVP), at least temporarily, played a role in politics once again

However, by the 1930s it was clear parties would never work alongside each other and Hindenburg did begin to abuse his power

attitudes to the Republic from the elites and other social groups

the elites - believed the Republic was born through betrayal of the Fatherland, signing of ToV was seen as a betrayal

The election of Hindenburg went some way towards reconciling the elites to the existence of the Republic, but only because they believed Hindenburg would steer Germany back towards a more authoritarian form of government

industrial workers felt the Republic had not delivered on their promises for greater equality and social justice

middle class is hard to generalise as it was such a large group - many were well off and prospered but the Mittelstand suffered and, although they were happy with the work of Stresemann and the appointment of Hindenburg, they opposed the Republic

the policy of fulfilment

Germany cooperating with France, GB, USA and Italy on issues such as reparations, with the belief that cooperation would lead to more revision of the treaty than a confrontational approach

When was Stresemann foreign minister?

1923-29

what did Stresemann believe was the biggest obstacle in securing revision of the ToV - how did he deal with this

French suspicion - so he concentrated on finding ways to reassure France of Germany’s peaceful intentions (e.g. through the Locarno Pact)

The Locarno Pact

1925

Germany, France and Belgium agreed to respect the western frontier drawn up in the ToV

Germany agreed to keep troops out of the Rhineland

Britain and Italy promised to aid France, Belgium or Belgium if any of them were attacked by their neighbours

Germany agreed with France, Belgium, Poland and Czechoslovakia that any dispute would be settled by a committee

any conflicts regarding the western borders should be referred to the LoN

France could not cross into Germany should their be any disputes between Germany and Poland or Czechoslovakia

Locarno Pact significance

It was the first time Germany had recognised the losses of Alsace-Lorraine to France and Eupen-Malamedy to Belgium

Assured the French they would have the support of Britain if Germany attacked

Meant the occupation of the Ruhr could not happen again

the eastern borders were not recognised in the same way as the western borders - Germany could still have these borders revised

Stresemann recognised it as his greatest achievement

similarities between Germany and USSR following WWI - and the consequence

both countries had been defeated in war and suffered harsh peace treaties

both countries felt the existence of an independent Poland was a threat. Poland also contained large German and Russian minorities

Both were treated as outcasts and left out of the League of Nations

consequently, the countries sought for a closer working relationship and Walter Rathenau negotiated the Treaty of Rapallo with Russia

the Treaty of Rapallo

1922

Germany and Russia resumed trade

diplomatic relations were restored

claims for compensation were dropped

Germany could develop weapons and train pilots in Russia

Treaty of Rapallo significance

did not specify cooperation against Poland but it was implied

it was a symbolic step away from isolation for Germany

France were angered as it showed Germany’s intentions of getting around the disarmament terms and its refusal to accept the eastern borders

The Treaty of Berlin

1926

Germany and USSR renewed their original treaty

added that Germany would remain neutral if the USSR was involved in war, if they were not the aggressor

Treaty of Berlin significance

signed a year after Locarno

showed that although Stresemann had accepted the western borders he had not given up on having the eastern borders revised

A close relationship with the USSR was vital because they would resists any border change otherwise

the Inter-Allied Control Commission (IMCC)

ensured Germany complied with the disarmament clauses

staffed largely by French and British army officers

tasked primarily with ensuring weapons were destroyed and no new ones outside the terms were being produced

ways around disarmament terms

Treaty of Rapallo - building weapons in Russia

built submarines in Spain

built tanks in Sweden

General Von Seekt found a way around the 100,000 men clause - people were trained for short periods of times so if they were needed they could be called upon

Kellog-Briand Pact

1928

Germany, France and USA signed

wars would not be used to resolve disputes

symbolic importance as an international agreement to avoid war, but lacked any enforcement mechanism - making it a bit pointless

the end of allied occupation

withdrew from zone 1 following the Dawes plan and Locarno Pact - withdrew in 1926

Withdrew from zones 2 & 3 following the young plan: zone 2 in 1929 and zone 3 in 1930