World History Textbook (Spielvogel, McGraw-Hill) - Topic 5, Section 3

IM GONNA ACE IT

After Muhammad's death in 632, why was choosing a successor challenging, and who was selected?

Muhammad had not named a successor, and the society was male-oriented. Some of his closest followers chose Abu Bakr, a wealthy merchant and Muhammad's father-in-law, because he had been Muhammad's companion on the journey to Madinah in 622, served as his chief adviser, and led public prayers during Muhammad's final illness.

Who was the first caliph, what does "caliph" mean, and what were his key achievements?

Abu Bakr was named caliph (successor to Muhammad) in 632. He suppressed tribal political and religious uprisings, united the Muslim world, and enabled the expansion of Islam, setting the stage for further conquests.

How did Abu Bakr's leadership impact the early Muslim community?

his leadership began the growth of the Islamic movement by suppressing uprisings and unifying tribes, allowing Islam to expand beyond Arabia.

Under the early caliphs like Abu Bakr, what key conquests occurred, including dates and locations?

The Arabs defeated the Byzantine army at Yarmuk in 636 (amidst a dust storm), took control of Syria by 640, conquered Egypt and other areas of northern Africa by 642, and conquered the entire Persian Empire by 650.

What motivated the Arab army during these conquests?

The army was led by brilliant generals and driven by the belief that Muslim warriors who died in battle were assured a place in paradise, enhancing their courage.

How did the conquests begin under Abu Bakr?

Expansion started beyond Arabia, leading to victories over Byzantine and Persian forces, resulting in control over Syria, Egypt, northern Africa, and Persia by 650.

How did the Umayyad dynasty begin, and who founded it?

In 661, Mu'awiyah, the governor of Syria and a rival of Ali, became caliph and established the Umayyad dynasty, making the caliphate hereditary within his family

What changes did the Umayyads make to the administration of the empire?

They moved the capital from Madinah to Damascus, Syria. They ruled an enormous empire but faced internal struggles and tensions due to favoritism toward Arabs.

Why did the Umayyads face resentment?

Internal struggles, corruption, and favoritism toward Arabs over non-Arabs caused tensions within the empire.

What were the major expansions under the Umayyads, including key dates and regions?

At the beginning of the eighth century, they conquered North Africa, converting the Berbers. By 710, combined Berber and Arab forces occupied southern Spain, making most of Spain a Muslim state centered at Córdoba by 725.

What stopped Umayyad expansion in Europe?

They were defeated at the Battle of Tours in 732, halting further expansion. An attempt to conquer Constantinople in 717 also failed, creating an uneasy frontier with the Byzantine Empire.

By 750, what territories did the Umayyad empire include, and why did expansion end?

The empire included southern and eastern Mediterranean regions, Mesopotamia, Persia, and central Asia. Expansion ended due to defeats like Tours (732) and Constantinople (717), marking the limits of Arab advance.

What event led to the split between Sunni and Shia Muslims?

A revolt led by Hussein (Ali's second son) against Umayyad rule in 680; his small force was defeated, resulting in the division.

What are the key beliefs distinguishing Shia and Sunni Muslims?

Shia Muslims accept only descendants of Ali (Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law) as true rulers. Sunni Muslims accepted the Umayyads as caliphs despite disagreements and do not require caliphs to be direct descendants of Muhammad.

What is the demographic distribution of Sunni and Shia today, according to the textbook?

Sunnis are the majority in the Muslim world, while Shia are prevalent in Iraq and Iran

Why did the Shia oppose Umayyad rule?

They believed caliphs had to be descendants of Muhammad, and the Umayyads were not.

How and when did the Abbasid dynasty come to power?

In 750, Abu al-Abbas, a descendant of Muhammad's uncle, overthrew the Umayyads due to resentment over favoritism toward Arabs and corruption, establishing the Abbasid dynasty, which lasted until 1258

What key change did the Abbasids make to the capital, and why?

They built a new capital at Baghdad in 762, reflecting a shift eastward and increased Persian influence, taking advantage of river traffic and caravan routes.

How did Abbasid rule differ from the Umayyads in terms of inclusivity?

They broke down distinctions between Arab and non-Arab Muslims, allowing all to hold civil and military offices, and encouraged intermarriage.

What cultural and intellectual achievements occurred under Abbasid caliphs like Harun al-Rashid and al-Ma'mun?

Harun al-Rashid supported artists and writers. His son al-Ma'mun patronized astronomy and founded the House of Wisdom in Baghdad for translating Greek works into Arabic.

Describe the administration and economy under the Abbasids

The caliph's bureaucracy grew complex, advised by a council headed by a vizier. Baghdad became a center of trade extending into Asia, Africa, and Europe, increasing prosperity through river and caravan routes.

Why did Baghdad's location contribute to Abbasid success?

It took advantage of river traffic and caravan routes, boosting trade and making Baghdad a prosperous center

What internal problems led to the decline of the Abbasid Dynasty?

Succession fights, financial corruption, and a shortage of qualified Arabs for key positions led to reliance on non-Arab officials like Persians and Turks, who dominated the army and bureaucracy.

How did the Abbasid Empire fragment politically?

Provinces broke away: Spain established its own caliphate in 750, Morocco became independent, and the Fatimids established a dynasty in Egypt with Cairo as capital in 973, dividing the Muslim Empire.

When did the Abbasid Dynasty end, and what were the long-term effects of its decline?

The dynasty lasted until 1258. Decline led to political fragmentation, with independent provinces and reliance on non-Arab forces weakening central control.