History A level (OCR A) Unit 2 (Y224) - Topic 4 - A New South Africa (c.1989-c.1999)

What was the role of CODESA 1?

- Formed in 1991, organisation charged with preparing South Africa for democracy post-Apartheid

- The new government had to be agreed by existing tricameral parliament (i.e. White South Africans, Indians and Coloureds)

- The entire process had to be completed in 5 years.

- All major political group spare the Inkhata and PAC attended CODESA 1

What was the significance of the declaration of intent?

- It was a statement committing to the creation of a non-racial, gender-inclusive, multi party democracy (political pluralism)

- It stated that elections must be held with universal suffrage

- Proportional representation must be implemented.

- Any subsequent government had to obey the constitution

- A referendum was held in 1992 among white voters with 69% favouring the proposed reforms

What was the role of CODESA 2?

- Formed in 1992 after the success of the Declaration of intent and the referendum. It was charged with developing a new constitution.

What was the significance of the record of understanding?

Negotiations broke down between the ANC and NP due to differences in ideology. The Record of understanding sealed their commitment to continue negotiations.

Pre-requisites to the deal:

- All political prisoners would be released

- Banning of traditional weapons used in racial attacks

- Restrictions on hostile Zulu dwellers

The Record of Understanding:

- Power sharing between major parties in the GNU (ensure that the NP doesn't lose all political influence as huge demographic shift would see them loose lots of influence)

- Parties with more than 5% of the overall vote (proportional representation) would have members in government - i.e. a Coalition. ('Rainbow Nation')

- Government would guarantee pensions to all public employees, some 40% of Afrikaners- 'Sunset Clause'

- Constitution could only be changed with a 66% super majority vote.

What was the interim constitution of 1993?

- Transitional Executive Council set up in September 1993 to facilitate the transition to democracy in South Africa.

- Primary goal was to ensure protection for minorities, while accepting majority rule (i.e. Prevent witch hunting of Apartheid era White leaders, and quell racial violence)

- Core value of upholding the principles of the 1955 Freedom Charter and racial equality.

- Bill of Rights established to include separation of powers.

- Government of National Unity would include members from parties with > 5% of the vote as per the Record of Understanding.

- Power sharing guaranteed for 5 year until the 1999 elections.

- Supreme Court established

- New constitution established 9 provinces each with independent governments that would have equal representation in the Senate.

- Parliament would be split between a National Assembly voted by proportional representation, and the Senate.

What was the constitution of 1996?

- Created in December 1996 after the GNU collapsed.

- Upholds most of the principles of the 1993 interim constitution.

HOWEVER

- Power sharing agreement was scrapped.

- No threshold for government representation - coaltion was under threat.

- NP withdrew from the GNU in 1996, citing a lack of consultation in the new constitution. De Klerk resigned as Deputy President.

What problems did the ANC face before the 1994 elections?

- Mass dissent from within the ANC between those who remained in South Africa and those who were banned or in exile, with those in exile accused of having an easy time.

- Winnie Mandela also weakened Mandela's position in negotiations as she was sentenced to a six year prison sentence (reduced to a fine) for vigilante activities after being unbanned.

- Due to mass banning of the core ANC leadership, it lacked organisation and discipline

What problems did the NP face before the 1994 elections?

- Many members of the NP didn't want a settlement due to the fear of their safety, due to ongoing violence. - PAC chanting 'One settler, one bullet'.

- Many feared for their livelihoods, as Black Africans became more skilled and made up drastically more of the population, it threatened Their privileged position in the workforce.

What were the major ideological differences between the two parties that limited negotiations?

ANC

- Wanted a unaliased central state, and one parliament to promote integration.

NP

- Wanted a minority veto for constitutional proposals.

- Promoted federalism where separate states have independent powers.

- Pressure from the conservative factions with the party to stall negotiations.

Problems overcome as both sides wanted to prevent further violence, grow the fractured economy and promote democracy in South Africa.

- Issues largely settled in the Record of Understanding (See flashcard 4).

What was the issue with violence before the 1994 election and how was it overcome?

Reasons for violence

- Many uneducated Africans turned to rebellion during the 1980's leading to mass participation in violent acts.

- APLA (radical wing of the PAC) carried out indiscriminate attacks on all races.

- Alliance between the AWB and Inkhata as both groups supported separatism. - Freedom Alliance.

Role of White extremism

- Conservatives with the NP and Conservative party opposed the negotiations and promoted separatism through and independent White homeland.

- This led to the formation of the AWB. They carried out bombings and assassinations and attacked halls where negotiations were held.

Case studies before the 1994 elections

- Incursion into Bophuthatswana (March 1994) - 600 AWB members raid the bantustan to try and reinstate leader Lucas Mangope, who had been detained by ANC supporters for resisting the upcoming elections. The AWB fired on civilians and local militia and police, who fought back. Many died on either side and Mangope was rearrested. The AWB all but collapsed as a result.

- Murder of Chris Hani (April 1993) - White extremist murders the popular MK leader. Mass uprising prevented when the suspect was caught with due to white witnesses. De Klerk condemned extremists, while the ANC organised peaceful protests to prevent violence.

What was the result of the 1994 election and why was it significant?

- The ANC won 62.5% of the popular vote making Nelson Mandela the president. (The ANC also held > 66% of the Senate (super majority)).

- The NP won 20.5% of the vote (2nd highest proportion) - De Klerk became Deputy President alongside Thabo Mbeki of the ANC.

- The Inkhata (who had previously withdrawn from negotiations after the Declaration of intent and then rejoined) won 10.5% so their leader Buthelezi became a government minister.

- The PAC only won 1.25%

- Evident support for non-violence and the vote was an accurate reflection of the population in South Africa.

- First democratic elections in South Africa, with a turnout of nearly 87%.

How was the Government of National (GNU) unity established? Who were its key leaders and what was Mandela's role?

Mandela - President (ANC)

De Klerk - Deputy President (NP)

Thabo Mbeki - Deputy President (ANC)

(Member of ANCYL, negotiated for Mandela's release from prison and heavily involved in CODESA negotiations)

- Mandela's main aim was to unite South Africa as a 'Rainbow Nation' and unite previously hostile groups and races.

Other problems:

- Devolution and greater alignment by many to their provinces rather than the nation due to ethnic divisions.

- Violence and hostility (ANC's violent legacy and white extremism)

- Mass emigration of skilled white labour -> creates a skills gap as Black Africans were excluded from education.

- Economic inequality, rising cost of living and inflation.

HOWEVER:

The GNU did provide stability to a nation that had seen great turmoil and division for decades, paving the road for the implementation of democracy.

What was the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) and why was it established?

The RDP was a programme implemented to grow the South African economy and tackle socio-economic inequality. (WHAM strategy- Minds)

Its aims were to:

- Meet the basic needs of all citizens in terms of housing, social provisions and healthcare.

- Grow the economy by investing in trade, commerce and other industries and implement the growth in a way that benefits everyone.

- Invest in higher education and skills training to solve the labour shortage. - R 1 billion spent on school development.

- Invest in arts, culture and sport

- Focus on a transition to democracy and the functioning of a democratic government, civil service, police force and justice system.

What were the key issues facing the RDP?

- Violence

- Lack of housing

- Lack of jobs

- Inadequate education and health care

- Lack of democracy

- Failing economy

What were the six basic principles of the RDP?

1) Develop a sustainable programme

Harness resources in a coherent and purposeful effort, that can be implemented by the government and work within the framework of the RDP.

2) Put people first

People are the most important resource, and the RDP focused on their needs.

3) Promote peace and security

Establish security forces and a legal system that treats people fairly and equally.

4) Build the Nation

Build a nation which can develop itself and also the wider Southern African region and participate in the world community.

5) Link reconstruction and development

Economic growth and eliminating poverty must happen in a unified programme.

6) Democratise South Africa

Establish a society that allows for all citizens to have equal opportunity in order to establish democracy.

How was the RDP financed?

Medium term finance options:

- Cost efficiency of government - removing duplicate functions left over from Apartheid, and economising government expenditures.

- Tax revenue - proportional income tax and corporation tax. (However overall tax raises should be avoided - priority is to streamline and simplify taxation)

- Reconstruction Bonds - encourage long term investment

- International investment

- Discipline financial policy to avoid inflation

What was GEAR? What were its aims and was it a success?

Growth, employment and redistribution (GEAR)

- Replaced the RDP in 1997 as the economy only grow 3% between 1994 and 1997 meaning RDP finances fell through.

Aims:

- Encourage international investment by tightly regulating finances and encouraging privately rather than state owned business.

- 6% economic growth per annum

- Create 500,000 new jobs by 2000

Success?

- No immediate success as its plans were long term

- In 1998 the economy grew 0.5% and unemployment rose

- Stagnation in the move to diversify the economy and South Africa was heavily reliant on mining as a key industry.

- Opposition from COSATU who opposed the promotion of privately owned business and wanted greater public spending to curb inequality.

What was the Truth and Reconciliation Committee (TRC) and how was it established?

- Established under the 1995 Promotion of National Unity and Reconciliation Act.

- Set up in 1996 for people to face 'the beast of the past' as social and cultural divisions were wider than prior to Apartheid.

- Led by Archbishop Desmond Tutu

Main goal was to forgive without forgetting the wrongs of Apartheid. Also to try an develop a culture of human rights in South Africa

- Amnesties and pardons had been given for those involved in violence during Apartheid both from the NP and its supporters and the ANC - prevent against 'Victor's justice'.

- The Court was once of RESTORATIVE justice not PUNITIVE justice

- Justice could never be done, but the anguish caused by confessions from both sides, helped for people to try to put Apartheid into the past and move into the future.

What was the structure of the TRC?

Made up of three committees

Committee of Human Rights violations

- Investigated human rights violations

- Encouraged testimonies of people who had been victims of human rights abuses during Apartheid.

Committee on Reparations and Rehabilitation

- Investigate cases and give emotional support to victims

- Monetary and land compensation given to those found to be victims. i.e. one off reparation payment to all victims of R30,000

Committee on Amnesty

- Amnesty given to perpetrators of human rights abuses, if they testified to their actions and showed sufficient remorse.

What are case studies of the reconciliation brought about by the TRC?

Robert McBride (MK)

- Convicted of terrorism for the 'Magoo's Bar bombing' in 1986, killing 3 and injuring 69. He was sentenced with a death penalty for gross human rights abuses, but this was overturned and he was given amnesty for testifying for his actions. He later became a police officer.

ANC landmines

- The ANC was investigated for attempting to use landmines in acts of terror in the Transvaal region. Figures suggested roughly 25 people were killed in explosions. The ANC abandoned the strategy as it was deemed to be indiscriminate.

- The TRC condemned the act of landmine use but granted amnesty as the ANC had abandoned the strategy.

Attempted murder of Frank Chikane

- 1989 Apartheid agents attempted to poison Frank Chikane by lacing his underwear, which was unsuccessful.

- Police Minister Adriaan Vlok and Johan Van der Merwe were convicted and given 10 year suspended sentences.

- Vlok initially didn't testify for the TRC, but in 2006 he sought forgiveness by washing Chikane's feet, along with 10 of the mothers of boys who were murdered by Apartheid agents in 1986.

What were the findings of the TRC?

- Report presented to Mandela and government in 1998 but published in 2003 in two separate volumes.

- TRC cost R70M in total.

- Evidence collected for 14,000 deaths, while 12,000 are unaccounted.

- Only 1/7 of amnesty applicants were successful.

Findings:

- PW Botha's government was guilty of arson, murder and sabotage.

- De Klerk government criticised for Third Force involvement prior to 1994 elections.

- ANC criticised for civilian casualties caused by MK activities i.e. Magoo bar bombing.

How was the TRC successful?

- Invaluable at humanising the country

- Allowed people to grieve and acknowledge suffering.

- Families of victims had closure as perpetrators on both sides confessed to their actions.

- Abusers had the chance to confess for their actions - Catharism.

- Allowed the country to move forwards after decades of violence.

- Provided stability upon which nation building and reconciliation.

What challenges did the TRC face?

- TRC didn't provide a 'realisable' truth

- De Klerk and the ANC refused to accept full responsibility for actions. De Klerk argued the TRC focused on revenge and not reconciliation.

- PW Botha and ministers of his administration refused to apologise for their actions which were found to be human rights abuses.

- Police/security forces blamed leadership, as they were 'following orders'.

What was the impact of sport (Rugby) in unifying South Africa?

Rugby

- Historically the national team of South Africa, the Springboks had represented colonialism and entrenched Apartheid ideology.

- 1995 Rugby world cup hosted in South Africa

- First international sporting event since the end of Apartheid.

- Mandela saw it as an opportunity to promote unity through sport and bring the nation together to support the Springboks. - "One Country, one team" slogan

- South Africa beat New Zealand in the final and Mandela handing the trophy to captain Francois Pienaar symbolised racial unity in South Africa.

What was the impact of sport (Cricket) in unifying South Africa?

Cricket

- The Springbok cricket team had been banned from international competition for 21 years under the 1970 Gleneagles Agreement.

- Cricket like rugby represented white colonialism in South Africa and seen as a white sport.

- Mandela negotiated from 1990 onwards with the Cricket authorities to try and implement mixed race teams - first Black African player in 1998.

- South Africa played in both the the 1992 and 1999 CWC Semi finals (In 1999 with a mixed race team). This showed that the team was still competitive post-Apartheid and helped bring unity to South Africa.

What was the impact of sport (The Olympics) in unifying South Africa?

The Olympics

- South Africa had been banned from the Olympics by the IOC in 1964 when the SOuth African Olympic Association refused to denounce Apartheid.

- South Africa reinstated after the 1992 referendum on Apartheid and the Declaration of Intent.

- Competed in the 1992 Summer Olympics in Spain but ranked 41st and only won two Silvers.

- Mandela featured as guest of honour at the games, and fought hard to desegregate the Olympic team prior to the games.

- Overall a success for reinstating South Africa on the international sporting stage and showed Mandela's influence in uniting the country through sport, as the nation could support a desegregated team.

Had the issue of violence and crime been tackled by 1999?

-Racism, violence an anti-social behaviour were deep rooted in society after 1994 and required direct action to tackle.

- Corruption was rife in former Bantustans. ANC diverted government money to buy supporters in rural areas which helped Ramaphosa become elected as ANC secretary general.

- Crime remained a large issue for the government, with racial tensions at an all time high and homicide rates rising after 1994.

- Whites became more exposed to crime after Apartheid which led to an increase in private security.

- Johannesburg gained a reputation as a global crime hotspot, although much of the crime is rooted in economic inequality and unemployment.

What was the issue with HIV and AIDS in South Africa by 1999?

Success

- Free healthcare extended to women and children under six in 1995.

- Abortion laws relaxed

- More health clinic set up in urban areas, HOWEVER this increase the divide between urban and rural areas.

Failures

- Politicians and health officials largely ignored the issue of HIV/AIDS, 22% of pregnant women tested positive for HIV by 1999.

- President Mbeki who took over in 1999 from Mandela denied the link between HIv and AIDS and banned the use of antiviral drugs in hospital which would have caused countless deaths.

- The government was criticised for their actions both from within South Africa and internationally.

- The government's lack of action to tackle the social causes of the epidemic, poverty, sex work and drug led to a dramatic increase in cases.

- By 1998 it was estimated that 10% of the population were HIV positive.

- Lack of available contraceptives exacerbated issue.

- Huge economic impact as majority of those affected were economically active young adults.

Had South Africa become more racially integrated since the collapse of Apartheid in c.1990 and the elections in 1994?

Had economic inequality been addressed by 1999?

Failure

- Eastern Cape remained one of the most impoverished states after the end of Apartheid, due to a high concentration of resident living in former bantustans which went underdeveloped for years.

- Funding to tackle poverty was limited due to budget cuts after the 1994 election. - Money was being directed to stimulate economic growth.

- The RDP's development schemes widened the rural/urban divide by focusing on developing urban spaces, which meant that there was a mass influx of people into urban spaces in order to benefit from the development.

- The GNU inherited massive national debt in 1994, and when faced with reducing debt to stimulate growth and encourage foreign investment , or increase funding for social and development they chose the former.

- High unemployment roughly 25%

- Skills training went to those already in employment rather than the unemployed - unemployment stagnates and economic inequality increases.

- Value of the Rand sunk 50% against the dollar from 1991 to 2000.

Success

- By 2004, 3 million people had been lifted out of poverty.

- Overall increase in real wages despite high levels of tax.

- Sanitation and access to other provisions improved.

- Inflation reduced from 15% in 1991 to 5.4% in 2000.

How did South Africa reintegrate into the international community, and why was it important?

- By the end of 1994 South Africa had re-joined the UN, World Bank, Commonwealth, Organisation of African Unity, Southern African Development Community and the Non-Aligned movement. This was alongside re-establishing diplomatic relations across the world.

- Many countries around the world began lifting trade sanctions.

- GNU aimed to retain close allegiance to former communist states and redevelop links to western powers.

- South Africa faced a dilemma other whether to align with Taiwan or the PRC as Taiwan was a large contributor to the RDP and ally throughout Apartheid. South Africa severed ties and aligned with the PRC in order to increase diplomatic relations around the world.

- Representatives from 169 countries attended Mandela's inauguration.

- South Africa increased trade and diplomatic relations with the US which had economic and strategic benefits.

What was the impact of the Southern African Development community.

- South Africa joined SADC in 1994

- 12 member states

- Aimed to promote regional cooperation in economic development and regional security.

- Meeting held in 1995 in order to improve sharing water resources, eliminating trade barriers and improving transport for landlocked member states.

- Mandela played a role in convincing SADC to help restore peace in Angola due the civil war.

What were the results of the 1999 election and how did they differ from 1994?

- Thabo Mbeki replaced Mandela as ANC leader prior to election.

- Less voter turnout than 1994.

- ANC inctreased majority and Democratic Party replaced NNP as main opposition party.

- ANC maintained control of 7 out of 9 provinces.

- ANC formed coalition with Inkhata in Kwazulu-natal as Inkhata lost power in 1999.

- NP lost control of Western Cape in 1999 but formed a coalition with the DP.

- Despite economic issues and problems with HIV/AIDS, generally the perception of the ANC was positive and as Black Africans were still the largest ethnic group, an ANC victory was inevitable.