Behavioral / Learning Theorists

B.F Skinner

Focused on observable behavior and how it’s shaped by consequences (not inner thoughts or feelings). Operant Conditioning.

Skinner Core Belief

All behavior is learned from the environment.

Behavior is controlled by its consequences — either reinforcement or punishment.

Internal mental states (thoughts, feelings) are less important than observable actions.

Learning occurs through repetition and reinforcement.

Key Concept Skinner

Operant Conditioning

• Learning through voluntary behavior followed by a consequence.

• Behavior → Consequence → Change in likelihood of that behavior.

Reinforcement

• Increases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again.

  • Positive Reinforcement: Add something pleasant
    → Example: Giving a child praise for doing homework.

  • Negative Reinforcement: Remove something unpleasant
    → Example: Turning off a loud alarm when you get out of bed (removal encourages the behavior).

Punishment

• Decreases the likelihood that a behavior will occur again.

  • Positive Punishment: Add something unpleasant
    → Example: Scolding a child for breaking a rule.

  • Negative Punishment: Take away something pleasant
    → Example: Taking away TV time after misbehavior.

Key Concepts - Skinner

Reinforcement Schedules

• How often reinforcement is given affects how quickly and strongly behavior is learned.

  • Fixed Ratio: Reward after a set number of behaviors.

  • Variable Ratio: Reward after an unpredictable number (e.g., slot machines).

  • Fixed Interval: Reward after a set time period.

  • Variable Interval: Reward after varying time intervals.

5⃣ Shaping

• Reinforcing small steps toward a larger desired behavior.
  → Example: Teaching a child to speak by praising every attempt at a new word.

6⃣ Extinction

• When reinforcement stops, the behavior will eventually decrease or disappear.

Key Concepts Watson

Behaviorism

• Human behavior can be measured, trained, and changed.

• Mental processes (like thoughts or emotions) are not suitable for scientific study.

• Learning = Conditioning

  • Watson built on Ivan Pavlov’s classical conditioning principles.

  • Behavior is a response to stimuli—we learn by forming associations.

• Little Albert Experiment (1920)

  • Watson and Rosalie Rayner conditioned a baby (“Little Albert”) to fear a white rat by pairing it with a loud noise.

  • Demonstrated that emotions can be conditioned (learned fears).

  • Ethically controversial today, but foundational to understanding learned emotional responses.

• Tabula Rasa (Blank Slate)

  • Watson believed people are born as blank slates—all behavior is learned from the environment.

  • He famously claimed he could train any infant to become any type of specialist (doctor, lawyer, artist, etc.) given control of their environment.Behaviorism

    • Human bevhavior can be measured, trained, and changed.

    • Mental processes (like thoughts or emotions) are not suitable for scientific study.

Watson - Core Idea - Classical Behaviorism 

• Watson believed that psychology should focus only on observable behavior, not internal thoughts or feelings.

• He rejected introspection and emphasized that behavior is learned through interaction with the environment.

Ivan Pavlov Founder of Classical Conditioning

Core Idea

• Pavlov discovered that learning occurs through association — when a neutral stimulus becomes linked with a naturally occurring stimulus, it begins to produce the same response.

• This process is known as classical conditioning.

Famous Experiment

The “Pavlov’s Dogs” Experiment

Pavlov noticed that dogs salivated not only when food was presented but also when they saw the lab assistant who fed them.

He paired the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) with food (unconditioned stimulus).

Eventually, the dogs salivated at the sound of the bell alone, showing that learning had occurred.

key concepts Pavlov

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally produces a response (e.g., food).

2. Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural reaction to UCS (e.g., salivation).

3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Previously neutral stimulus that becomes associated with UCS (e.g., bell).

4. Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to CS (e.g., salivation to bell).

Major Concepts - Pavlov

• Acquisition: Learning phase when association is made.

• Extinction: When the conditioned response decreases after repeated exposure without reinforcement.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of a learned response after extinction.

• Generalization: Similar stimuli produce the same response.

• Discrimination: Ability to distinguish between different stimuli.

Edward L. Thorndike (1874–1949) Founder of Connectionism & the Law of Effect

Core Idea

• Thorndike studied how animals and humans learn through trial and error.

• He believed that learning is the result of connections (associations) forming between stimuli and responses — a concept known as connectionism.

Famous Experiment

The “Puzzle Box” Experiments with Cats

Cats were placed in a box with a lever they had to press to escape and get food.

Over time, they learned the correct behavior (pressing the lever) faster.

This led to his discovery of the Law of Effect.

Key Principles  - Thorndike 

Law of Effect

• Behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.

• Behaviors followed by unpleasant outcomes are less likely to occur again.

• → Foundation for Operant Conditioning (later expanded by B.F. Skinner).

Law of Exercise

• Repetition strengthens connections between stimulus and response.

• “Practice makes permanent.”

Trial and Error Learning

• Learning occurs gradually through repeated attempts until success is achieved.

Albert Bandura Social Learning Theory / Social Cognitive Theory

Core Idea

• Learning occurs by observing others, not just through direct experience.

• Behavior is influenced by cognition, environment, and behavior — called reciprocal determinism.

Key Concepts - Bandura

1. Observational Learning (Modeling)

   • People can learn new behaviors by watching others.

   • They do not need to perform the behavior themselves to learn it.

2. Bobo Doll Experiment (1961)

   • Children watched adults act aggressively toward a Bobo doll.

   • Children imitated aggressive behaviors, demonstrating learning through observation.

3. Reciprocal Determinism

   • Behavior, personal factors (thoughts, beliefs), and environment interact to influence learning.

4. Self-Efficacy

   • Belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations.

   • High self-efficacy → more likely to attempt challenging tasks.

   • Low self-efficacy → avoidance or decreased effort.

Influence on Counseling - Bandura

Bandura’s work informs cognitive-behavioral approaches, modeling, and skills training.

Helps clients develop self-efficacy to achieve goals or change behavior.

Techniques like role-playing, modeling, and observational learning are derived from his theory.

Arnold A. Lazarus (1932–2013) Founder of Multimodal Therapy (MMT)

Core Idea

• Humans are complex and function on multiple modalities (dimensions) of experience.

• Effective counseling addresses all aspects of a person, not just one problem or symptom.

The BASIC ID Framework

B – Behavior: Actions and habits (e.g., aggression, avoidance).

A – Affect: Emotions and feelings (e.g., anxiety, sadness).

S – Sensation: Physical sensations or bodily experiences (e.g., tension, pain).

I – Imagery: Mental images, memories, or fantasies.

C – Cognition: Thoughts, beliefs, and attitudes.

I – Interpersonal Relationships: Social interactions and relationships.

D – Drugs/Biology: Biological or medical factors (e.g., medications, health issues).

Key Principles - LAZARUS

Multimodal assessment: Evaluate clients across all BASIC ID dimensions.

Flexible techniques: Use cognitive, behavioral, emotional, and physiological interventions as needed.

Personalized treatment: Tailor therapy to each client’s unique profile.

Short-term focus: MMT can be brief and goal-oriented