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absolutism -
A form of government in which the sovereign power or ultimate authority rested in the hands of the monarch who claimed to rule by divine right and was therefore responsible only to God.
Under absolutism, power is transferred away from other groups such as the church and the nobility, and exercised almost entirely by the monarch.
Examples at this time include:
monarchs creating bureaucracies to administer their kingdom,
taking away many responsibilities traditionally held by the nobility;
the merchant class was growing and taking some of the power traditionally left to the nobility and using it to support the monarch who represented economic stability;
and Catholicism was losing power as it now had a competitor with Protestantism, which led to even more power residing in the hands of the monarch.
constitutional monarchy
A form of government in which the monarch’s power is limited by the rule of law.
In England, for example, the monarch shared power with the English Parliament (and was beholden to upholding the Magna Carta and English Bill of Rights).
James I of England
A firm believer in the divine right of kings,
James I tried to assert power over parliament by spending money without their approval.
This was illegal according to the Magna Carta, so England fought a civil war to limit the power of the monarch.
The English Civil War
James I and then Charles I believed strongly in the divine right of kings.
They used this belief that they were God’s chosen monarchs to justify acts like unconstitutionally seizing land and spending egregious sums of money on war, both without Parliament’s permission.
This caused a rift between the king and the parliament.
Then, Charles I refused to call parliament to session, effectively dissolving Parliament from 1629-1640.
When Charles I had run out of money, he finally called what is known as the “short parliament” into session.
When they didn’t give him what he wanted, he dismissed them and a new parliament was elected. This parliament became known as the “long parliament.” When they didn’t give him what he wanted, he dismissed them too.
On top of the political and economic troubles of Charles I’s reign, there were religious objections when he married a Catholic.
The Puritans were already upset that the Church of England was still very similar to Catholicism and not “purely” Protestant enough.
Essentially, the English Civil War was a dispute between the king and parliament (Cavaliers vs. Roundheads respectively) trying to determine whether England would be ruled by an absolute or constitutional monarch.
After a three year war between Charles I and parliament, Parliament’s New Model Army was victorious. (The story continues with Oliver Cromwell.)
Oliver Cromwell
A Puritan and Parliamentarian who took leadership of the New Model Army and captured Charles I.
Then, he removed any members of Parliament who opposed him, creating the rump parliament.
This parliament tried King Charles I for treason and had him beheaded.
Cromwell was named Lord Protector of England.
He created a republic called The Protectorate, which theoretically entrusted law-making powers to parliament and executive authority to a council.
In reality, Cromwell ruled England as a military dictator with the army enforcing his demands, including his dismissal of parliament. Ironically, doing exactly the same thing as the man he had beheaded for treason. (The story continues after Oliver Cromwell.)
The Glorious Revolution
When Oliver Cromwell died, The Protectorate fell apart, and the English people wanted a return to stability in the form of a monarch.
However, Charles II and then James II were both disappointments as monarchs.
While James II was still ruling as king, parliament offered the throne to James II’s daughter, Mary, and her husband, William of Orange.
The throne was then passed to William and Mary in 1689. This transfer of power is known as the Glorious Revolution because monarchs changed without (much) bloodshed. (There were a few rebellions.)
This revolution resulted in the end of the idea of the divine right of kings in England as well as the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in England.
It also led to the creation of the English Bill of Rights, which limited the power of the monarch by giving parliament the power of taxation and by divesting the monarch of the power to annul a law passed by parliament.
The Agricultural Revolution
Before the revolution, farming techniques relied on the two- and three-field systems, in which crops were planted on ½ or ⅔ fields, while one field lay empty or fallow each season to prevent soil exhaustion.
However, the British and Dutch began to use crop rotation, alternating crops and using crops like clover to restore nutrients to the soil, removing the need to let a field lie fallow.
However, with the invention of new technologies such as Jethro Tull’s seed drill and mechanical hoe, crop yields increased dramatically.
In addition, the Columbian Exchange introduced new crops such as potatoes and beans.
All of this combined revolutionized the farming industry, allowing less people to grow more crops than ever before, in what is known as the Agricultural Revolution.
cottage industry or putting-out system
As there was less need for farmers due to the Agricultural Revolution, workers turned to the cottage industry, or making goods for sale in their own homes. I
t was a system of textile manufacturing in which spinners and weavers worked at home using raw materials supplied to them by capitalist entrepreneurs.
joint-stock company
A company that raises capital by selling shares to individuals who receive dividends on their investment while a board of directors runs the company.
One important example of this was the Dutch East India Company (VOC).
Dutch Golden Age
With the signing of the Peace of Westphalia, the Dutch gained their independence from the Spanish, and went on to establish a republican government in which the provincial governments were stronger than the federal government.
Each province was ruled by an oligarchy, or government run by a few powerful people, which was generally made up of local businessmen and landholders as well as a statholder, who was in charge of defending the region.
Although the federal government or States General was over foreign policy and military decisions, the provincial governments had veto power, so they remained stronger than the federal government.
Under this governmental structure, the Netherlands became the wealthiest country in Europe.
They also invested heavily in shipbuilding and Atlantic and Indian Ocean trade, even starting the highly lucrative Dutch East India Company or VOC.
balance of power
A distribution of power among several states, such that no single nation can dominate or interfere with the interests of another,
which often led to building up armies for “defensive”
ex- the defeat of the Ottomans at the Battle of Vienna.
it also led to new efforts in diplomacy, such as the Partition of Poland.
Partition of Poland
The Commonwealth of Poland was the largest state in Europe at the time, including Lithuania, Latvia, and Belarus.
It was a constitutional monarchy; however, its nobles defied the king and exploited the peasants.
Poland had been at war for decades and was surrounded by three absolutist monarchs: Frederick II of Prussia, Joseph II of Austria, and Catherine II of Russia.
In 1772, Russia, Prussia, Austria, and a bullied Poland signed a treaty giving over about a third of Poland’s territory to the three other states.
These types of treaties continued for approximately another 20 years until Poland disappeared from the map.
Ironically, this is considered to be an instance of using diplomacy rather than war to maintain the balance of power in Europe.
The Fronde in France
In 1648, the nobility incited the commoners of France to rebel against the monarch.
Riots broke out, which forced a young Louis XIV and his mother to flee Paris.
While this was the nobility’s last attempt to curtail the power of the monarch, Louis XIV never forgot the humiliation of being forced to flee his home and went on to become Europe’s most powerful absolute monarch.
Louis XIV
Referred to as the “Sun King,” he ruled France from 1643-1715. He is known for his famous saying “L’etat cei moi” or “I am the state” and is the textbook example of an absolute monarch.
Louis XIV is remembered for his creation of the Palace of Versailles to gain power over the nobility. All nobles were required to live at least part of the year in this opulent building, following an elaborate set of court rituals and attempting to curry more favor with the king than the other members of the nobility. This gained the loyalty of the nobility, increasing devotion to Louis himself and decreasing the nobles’ own power.
In addition, Louis XIV is known for his imposition of religious uniformity. He revoked the Edict of Nantes, which established religious toleration for Huguenots (French Calvinists), and instead imposed Catholicism on all of France. This caused many Hugeunots to leave France, weakening France’s merchant class.
Finally, Louis XIV is known for his employment of the largest professional standing army in Europe as well as his participation in numerous wars. Under Louis XIV, France fought in the Dutch War, in order to gain territory in the Spanish Netherlands and to weaken the Habsburgs; it fought in the Nine Years War, again trying to gain territory, this time in the Holy Roman Empire. Finally, France fought in the War of Spanish Succession, hoping to establish his grandson, Phillip V, on the Spanish throne. Eventually, the war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht, which named Phillip V as king of Spain, but stipulated that France and Spain would remain separate states, which was a way to maintain the balance of power in Europe.
Jean-Baptiste Colbert was Louis XIV’s financial minister, who decreased France’s debt following mercantilist policies. He aimed to enhance the wealth and power of France through improvement of infrastructure such as roads and canals, the expansion of French colonial holdings, and protection of domestic industries through tariffs. However, Louis XIV racked up so much debt in war that the country never really recovered.
intendants
Royal officials of 17th-century France who were sent into the provinces to execute the orders of the central government,
thereby undermining authority of local authorities and centralizing power under Louis XIV himself.
Peter the Great of Russia
Peter the Great is known for westernizing Russia.
When he was young, a disguised Peter went on a trip to the west and came back with ideas to modernize Russia. I
n order to do this, Peter tripled taxes, which really hurt the peasantry.
He began requiring nobles to either serve in the army or civil administration.
He created a Table of Ranks in which nobles could advance as they became experts in their field and as they pleased Peter himself.
He forced them to adhere to western dress and grooming standards, even imposing a Beard Tax on those who didn’t want to shave like the western nobility. The beard was a sign of piety in the Orthodox Church, so this was also a challenge to religious authority.
in another challenge to religious authority, Peter eliminated the head of the Orthodox Church, or the Patriarch, and established the Holy Synod, which he filled with officials who were loyal to him.
Philip II of Spain
Known for his military might, Phillip II united the Iberian Peninsula by capturing Portugal.
He also repulsed the Ottomans in the Mediterranean.
He is also known for his consolidation of power through the Spanish Inquisition.
The decline of Spain’s power began with the rebellion in the Spanish Netherlands and the failure of the Spanish armada to invade England at the end of Phillip II’s reign.
Military Revolution
Under the influence of Sweden’s King Gustavus Adolphus, Europe experienced a Military Revolution during the beginning of the 17th century.
Adolphus was a military genius who built a massive professional standing army known for its hierarchical organization, which made rank and positions of authority during battle very clear.
Additionally, new military technologies such as firearms, mobile canons, and elaborate fortifications were developed during this period.
Combined, these innovations revolutionized the art of warfare forever.
