A-Level Geography: Dynamic Landscapes, Physical Systems, and Global Change

Flashcards covering key Edexcel A-Level Geography content, including Tectonic Processes, Coastal Landscapes, Globalisation, Regenerating Places, Water and Carbon Cycles, Superpowers, and Health, Human Rights, and Intervention.

What are the radius, composition, temperature, and physical state of Earth's inner core?

It has a radius of approximately $1,220\,km$, is mainly composed of iron and nickel, reaches temperatures of $5,000\text{--}6,000\,^\circ\text{C}$, and remains solid due to immense pressure.

How does Earth's outer core generate the planet's magnetic field?

Through the movement of molten iron and nickel within the liquid outer core layer.

How do oceanic crust and continental crust compare in terms of thickness, density, and dominant rock type?

Oceanic crust is thin ($5\text{--}10\,km$), dense, and mainly basaltic. Continental crust is thicker ($30\text{--}70\,km$), less dense, and mainly granitic.

What three heat-driven mechanisms drive the movement of tectonic plates?

Mantle convection, slab pull (sinking of dense oceanic lithosphere at subduction zones), and ridge push (gravity moving crust away from elevated mid-ocean ridges).

What fossil evidence supports the theory that South America and Africa were once joined?

Identical fossils of Mesosaurus, a freshwater reptile that could not cross the Atlantic Ocean, discovered in both South America and Africa.

What features and seismic activities characterize constructive (divergent) versus destructive (convergent) plate boundaries?

Constructive boundaries feature mid-ocean ridges, rift valleys, shield volcanoes, and shallow earthquakes. Destructive boundaries feature subduction, composite volcanoes, ocean trenches, fold mountains, and powerful earthquakes.

How do Primary (P) waves and Secondary (S) waves differ in velocity, material propagation, and particle motion?

P waves are faster, travel through solids and liquids, and push/pull parallel to movement. S waves are slower, travel only through solids, and move particles perpendicular to travel direction.

What does a $1$-unit increase on the Moment Magnitude Scale ($M_w$) represent in wave amplitude and energy release?

An increase of $1$ unit represents approximately $10$ times greater wave amplitude and around $32$ times more energy released.

What were the earthquake magnitude, death toll, and primary cascading disaster associated with Japan's 2011 Tōhoku event?

It was a magnitude $9.0$ earthquake that generated a massive tsunami, resulted in around $20,000$ people dead or missing, and triggered the Fukushima nuclear accident.

What was the magnitude and approximate death toll of the 2010 Haiti earthquake, and why were its impacts so severe?

The magnitude was approximately $7.0$, causing around $220,000$ deaths; impacts were severe primarily due to extreme human vulnerability, including poor building quality, high density, poverty, and weak governance.

What are the four main physical processes of coastal erosion?

Hydraulic action (air and water compressed in cracks), abrasion (rock fragments striking cliff faces), attrition (particles colliding and becoming smaller/rounder), and solution (chemical dissolution of soluble rocks like limestone).

What is the sequential evolution of erosional landforms created in a headland?

Crack $\rightarrow$ Cave $\rightarrow$ Arch $\rightarrow$ Stack $\rightarrow$ Stump.

What is the difference between eustatic and isostatic sea-level change?

Eustatic change is a global change in sea level caused by changes in ocean water volume or thermal expansion. Isostatic change is a local relative change caused by vertical movement of the land surface.

What is a major disadvantage of groynes as hard engineering coastal structures?

They interrupt longshore drift and trap sediment, which deprives downdrift beaches of sediment and increases downdrift erosion.

How has containerisation accelerated economic globalisation?

Containerisation dramatically reduced the cost and time of transporting goods across international waters using large standardized container ships.

What is glocalisation, and what example illustrates it?

Glocalisation occurs when global products are adapted to suit local cultures and preferences, such as McDonald's modifying its menus in different nations.

What three elements constitute a 'place' beyond simple geographic coordinates?

Location (geographical position), Locale (physical setting and built environment), and Sense of place (emotional and cultural meanings attached to it).

What entity managed the regeneration of London Docklands starting in 1981, and what transit infrastructure was developed?

The London Docklands Development Corporation (LDDC) was established in 1981, introducing the Docklands Light Railway (DLR) and extending the Jubilee Line.

Why is a drainage basin classified as an open system?

Because it features external inputs (precipitation), outputs (river discharge, evapotranspiration), and internal transfers and stores of energy and mass.

What is the difference between physical water scarcity and economic water scarcity?

Physical scarcity occurs when natural water resources are insufficient to meet demand. Economic scarcity occurs when physical water is available, but poverty, weak governance, or poor infrastructure prevent access.

What are the two primary methods of water desalination, and what are their major drawbacks?

Reverse osmosis and thermal desalination; their primary drawbacks are high energy usage, high costs, and the production of toxic concentrated brine.

What simplified equations represent the carbon processes of photosynthesis and respiration?

Photosynthesis: $\text{Carbon dioxide} + \text{water} \rightarrow \text{glucose} + \text{oxygen}$. Respiration: $\text{Organic compounds} + \text{oxygen} \rightarrow \text{carbon dioxide} + \text{water} + \text{energy}$.

What is an example of a positive feedback mechanism in the carbon cycle resulting from climate warming?

Global warming causes Arctic permafrost to melt $\rightarrow$ releases stored methane and $\text{CO}_2$ $\rightarrow$ enhances the greenhouse effect $\rightarrow$ causes further global warming.

How do hard power and soft power differ in global geopolitics?

Hard power relies on coercion or direct force (military action, economic sanctions). Soft power relies on attraction and persuasion (culture, diplomacy, education, international reputation).

Which nations hold permanent membership and veto power on the UN Security Council?

The United States, the United Kingdom, France, Russia, and China.

What three variables are synthesized to calculate the Human Development Index (HDI)?

Life expectancy, education (mean/expected years of schooling), and income (GNI per capita).

What shift occurs during Stage 3 of the epidemiological transition?

Dominant causes of mortality shift from infectious diseases to non-communicable lifestyle diseases (e.g., heart disease, cancer, diabetes).

How do Universalism and Cultural Relativism differ regarding international human rights?

Universalism asserts that human rights apply equally to all people everywhere. Cultural Relativism argues that rights must be interpreted within local cultural, historical, and social contexts.

What is the core doctrine of the Responsibility to Protect (R2P)?

States have an obligation to protect populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity; if a state fails or commits these, the international community has a duty to intervene.

What were the date, duration, and death toll of the Rwandan genocide?

The genocide occurred in 1994, lasting approximately $100$ days, during which roughly $800,000$ people (predominantly Tutsi and moderate Hutu) were killed.

What key controversies surrounded NATO's 1999 military intervention in Kosovo?

NATO intervened without explicit UN Security Council authorization, caused civilian casualties, and established a controversial precedent for unauthorized humanitarian intervention.