infancy final - 3

When do infants start focusing on eyes and following gazes?

By 1 month, they focus on eyes; by 6-10 months, they follow familiar people's gaze.

What is biological motion preference in infants?

Infants prefer looking at humans or animals over objects, especially if the figure interacts with them.

What did the "Edwin talking to sleep sheep" study show?

Infants looked longer when a person reached for a new object, showing they understand actions as goal-directed.

What was the key finding from Woodward's 1998 hand-reaching study?

Infants looked longer when a hand reached for a new object, suggesting they understood the goal behind the action.

What did control studies using a stick (instead of a hand) reveal?

Infants did not interpret the stick's motion as goal-directed, showing they attribute goals only to human-like agents.

What did the self-propelled motion & imitation study find?

Infants followed gaze only if the object had a face or interacted with them, suggesting understanding of social intent.

What was Meltzoff & Moore's newborn imitation study?

Some newborns mimicked facial gestures (e.g., sticking out tongue), but findings have been questioned in later studies.

What did the Meltzoff Dumbbell Study (1995) show?

18-month-olds imitated the intended goal (pulling apart a dumbbell), even when the adult failed, showing goal inference.

What did the Carpenter et al. Box Study (1998) show?

Infants imitated intentional actions (e.g., "There!") but not accidental ones (e.g., "Whoops!"), showing intent recognition.

What did the Lightbox Head vs. Hands Study find?

Infants imitated using their head only when the adult's hands were occupied, showing rational imitation.

What do infants prefer: human or machine models?

Infants prefer to imitate humans over machines and live people over videos.

What is the video deficit effect?

Infants learn and imitate more from live people than from videos.

Who do infants prefer to imitate?

People who speak their native language or are familiar to them.

What is social cognition in infancy?

Understanding others' thoughts, feelings, and intentions; begins with egocentrism and develops with age.

How does social cognition support behavior?

It helps infants show empathy and engage in appropriate social behavior by recognizing different perspectives.

What is Theory of Mind?

The ability to understand that others have their own thoughts, desires, and beliefs

What does the Sally and Anne Task test?

Whether children understand false beliefs — most under age 4 fail, older preschoolers typically pass.

What is the correct answer in the Sally and Anne Task?

Sally will look in the basket, where she left the marble (not the box, where it was moved).

What is a dyadic relationship in early development?

A two-person interaction, typically the caregiver-infant bond; it is bi-directional (each affects the other)

What does ethological theory say about attachment?

Attachment evolved to ensure survival; infants are born with behaviors that promote caregiving.

According to ethological theory, how do caregivers respond to infants?

Caregivers are biologically we wired to read signals, response, sensitively, and to stay close to infants

What do environmental/learning theories focus on development?

Socialization through reinforcement and conditioning. Infant line behaviours based on caregiver responses

How do cognitive developmental theories explain attachment?

Infants and caregivers, build internal working models to predict and interpret each other's behaviours

What is Vygotsky's view on early social learning?

Learning happens through guided participation

What is mutual regulation and infancy?

A process requiring effective communication (like crying) between infant and caregiver for emotional regulation

What did Darwin believe about infants crying?

Crying evolved to inform the caregiver of the babies condition/needs

What is the significance of different cry types?

Different cries or communicative signals that caregivers must learn to distinguish

What did Harlow's monkey experiment show about attachment?

Monkeys prefer the cloth (comfort) mother over the wire (food) mother

What is the main Takeaway of Harlow study?

Infinite warmth, safety, and comfort for attachment, not just nourishment.

What is Bowlby's will be stage 1 of attachment (birth to 2 months)?

Indiscriminate social responsiveness, the baby response positively to anyone but prefer his mother's face /smell

What is Bowlby's stage 2 of attachment (2-7 months)?

Discriminate social responsiveness, baby prefers main caregiver, but accepts others

what is Bowlby's stage 3 of attachment (8 months-2 years)?

Focussed attachment, strong, caregiver bond, stranger anxiety, separation protest, uses caregiver as a secure base

What is separation protest?

Distress when the caregiver leaves

What is separation protest most common?

During the focus attachment phase of attachment

When does stranger anxiety occur?

Typically, during the focus attachment stage (around 8 months)

What does it mean to use the caregiver as a secure base?

Infant explores the environment of returns to the caregiver for comfort and safety when needed

What was the purpose of Ainsworth's Strange Situation (1978)?

To observe how babies respond to separation from and reunion with their caregiver.

What are the key steps in the Strange Situation procedure?

Baby and caregiver are in a room → stranger enters → caregiver leaves → caregiver returns → infant's behavior is observed.

What are the characteristics of secure attachment in the Strange Situation?

Upset when caregiver leaves, easily soothed when they return, uses caregiver as a secure base for exploration.

What are the characteristics of insecure-avoidant attachment?

Shows little emotion when caregiver leaves or returns, avoids contact with caregiver.

What are the characteristics of insecure-resistant (ambivalent) attachment?

Very upset when caregiver leaves, not easily comforted upon return, seeks closeness but resists it at the same time.

What are the characteristics of disorganized attachment?

Mixed or confused reactions, may freeze, look fearful, or approach caregiver with fear.

What are some determinants of attachment style?

Maternal responsiveness and
infant temperament

What are early signs of attachment (8-10 months)?

Crying when separated from caregiver, stress during daycare drop-off, clinging, separation anxiety.

When is separation anxiety most common?

Between 6 to 14 months.

What is Drive Reduction Theory of attachment?

Early theory claiming attachment forms because caregivers provide relief from hunger/discomfort — now considered too simplistic.

What is Bowlby's modern attachment theory?

Attachment is instinctual. Infants develop internal working models based on caregiver responsiveness, which shape future relationships.

What are the 4 attachment styles in Ainsworth's Strange Situation?

1. Secure
2. Avoidant
3. Resistant (Anxious)
4. Disorganized

What is secure attachment?

Distressed when mom leaves, comforted when she returns.

What is avoidant attachment?

Unbothered by mom leaving/returning.

What is resistant/anxious attachment?

Very upset by separation, not easily comforted.

What is disorganized attachment?

Mixed/confused behavior (least common)

What role does the amygdala play in attachment?

It processes fear. In infants

How does attachment influence amygdala activity in human infants?

Securely attached infants show less amygdala activity in response to fear, suggesting better emotional regulation.

How does secure attachment help with stress?

Acts as a protective buffer

What is the most important factor influencing attachment style?

Parenting style — especially sensitivity, consistency, and responsiveness.

What caregiving is linked to secure attachment?

Sensitive, consistent, and responsive caregiving

What caregiving is linked to insecure-avoidant attachment?

Unresponsive or rejecting caregiving.

What caregiving is linked to insecure-resistant attachment?

Inconsistent caregiving.

What caregiving is linked to disorganized attachment?

Caregiver trauma, abuse, or mental illness.

How does early experience impact attachment?

Inconsistent or absent caregiving (e.g., in institutions) increases the risk of insecure attachment.

How does adoption timing affect attachment security?

Adopted before 1 year → more likely secure.
Adopted after 1 year → higher risk for insecure attachment.

What did the Bucharest Early Intervention Project show?

High-quality foster care improved social/emotional outcomes for children previously in institutions.

What is the core idea of Discrete Emotions Theory?

Emotions are innate, distinct, and biologically based responses (e.g., automatic fear when seeing a snake).

What is the core idea of the Emergent Theory of Emotion?

Emotions arise from interactions between body, brain, and environment; they are shaped by experience and context.

What is a neonatal smile?

Reflexive smile, not due to true emotion.

When do social smiles emerge, and what are they?

Around 6-8 weeks; directed at familiar people, indicating social engagement.

When does laughter usually appear in infants?

Between 2 and 5 months.

What are self-conscious emotions and when do they develop?

Guilt, shame, pride, embarrassment, empathy — appear around 18 months with self-recognition.

What is the Rouge Test and what does it measure?

A red mark is placed on a baby's face. If the baby touches their own face in a mirror, it shows self-recognition.

What affects emotional expression in infants?

Genes, parenting, culture, caregiving structure

How do caregivers understand infant emotions?

By reading facial expressions and adjusting behavior to soothe or engage the baby.

What did Haviland & Lelwica (1987) find about emotional modeling?

10-week-old babies matched their mothers' facial expressions, showing that emotion can be learned through observation.

What role does a mother's attention play in infant emotions?

Babies smile more during play when their mom is looking at them — they want to be seen

What did Young-Browne et al. (1977) show about infant emotion discrimination?

3-month-olds could tell the difference between emotional facial expressions, especially those that were very different (e.g., sad vs. surprise).

What is social referencing?

Using a caregiver's emotional cues to decide how to respond to unfamiliar situations.

What did Klinert (1987) find about social referencing in 12-month-olds?

Babies moved faster and came closer when mom smiled, and hesitated or stayed back when she looked afraid.

What did Walker-Andrews & Grolnick (1983) discover about vocal emotion discrimination?

5-month-olds noticed when vocal tones didn't match facial expressions, indicating they can tell vocal emotions apart.

What are early face-to-face interactions important for?

Emotion regulation, interactional synchrony (turn taking)

Emde et al. (1992) - What did their study on twins find?

Found that temperament is partly genetic.

What is temperament?

A baby's natural personality style from birth; includes traits like mood, activity, fussiness. It has a strong genetic component.

Emde et al. (1992) - What was their study on twins?

Identical twins had the highest correlation in temperament (~0.4)

Fraternal twins and unrelated children had lower correlations

What is behavioral inhibition?

A temperament trait where infants withdraw from new situations or people.

s temperament stable over time?

Some traits like fear, activity level, and attention span are stable

What are the 3 types of temperament in the NY Longitudinal Study (Thomas & Chess)?

1. Easy
2. Difficult
3. Slow to warm up

What can behavioural inhibition predict?

40% of inhibited infants develop social anxiety later in life

What is easy temperament in the NY Longitudinal Study (Thomas & Chess)?

Regular routines, adapts well

What is difficult temperament in the NY Longitudinal Study (Thomas & Chess)?

Irregular, intense reactions

What is slow to warm up temperament in the NY Longitudinal Study (Thomas & Chess)?

Low activity, slow to adapt

What is the Authoritative parenting style and its effects?

High warmth and high control, predictable environment

Children: academically successful, self-confident, independent

How does temperament relate to attachment?

Easy → mostly secure attachment
Difficult → more resistant attachment
Slow-to-warm-up → more avoidant attachment

What are some long-term outcomes linked to difficult temperament?

May lead to more behavior problems in childhood, but not always in adulthood

What did the Rheses monkey study show about parenting influence on temperament development?

reactive babies raised by calm moms became less fearful

Describe the Authoritarian parenting style and outcomes.

Low warmth, high control, controlling, uses threats/punishment

Children: aggressive, may have conduct problems

Describe the Permissive parenting style and outcomes.

High warmth, low control, few limits or structure

Children: impulsive, immature, poorly controlled behavior

What is the Indifferent parenting style and its effects?

Low warmth and control, minimal limits, little attention or support

Children: disobedient, demanding, socially withdrawn