chem 107 final

halogens of periodic table

fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I), astatine (At), and tennessine (Ts), group 17 elements

noble gases of periodic table

last column on the right of the periodic table, group 18

metals of periodic table

left of staircase (except hydrogen)

nonmetals of periodic table

right of the staircase and hydrogen

compound

a substance that can be broken down into two or more simpler substances by chemical methods is called a(n)

groups

on a periodic table, the columns of elements with similar properties are

metals

the most numerous of the elements are the

sodium chloride

which is not a mixture?

- a jar filled with rocks and sand

- a glass of Kool-Aid

- seawater

- sodium chloride

air

which is not a pure substance?

- sucrose

- air

- copper wire

- helium

a compound does not exhibit the individual properties of the elements of which it is composed

which differentiates a compound from a mixture of two or more elements?

- a compound is made up of only one element.

- the elements in a compound may be present in varying proportions.

- a compound does not exhibit the individual properties of the elements of which it is composed.

- a compound cannot be made up of more than two elements.

molecule

a(n) __________ is a fixed number of atoms held together by chemical bonds in a certain spatial arrangement

what is the chemical symbol for silver?

Ag

the nucleus of an atom contains

protons and neutrons only

what distinguishes the atoms of one element from another?

the number of protons

the atomic number is the

number of protons in a nucleus

green chemistry

the design of chemical products and processes that reduce or eliminate the use and generation of hazardous substances

radon

Which air pollutant is the second-leading cause of lung cancer worldwide, behind tobacco smoke?

ppm

parts per million

troposphere; stratosphere

ozone is considered an air pollutant in the ________ but is a valuable protective layer in the ________

carbon monoxide

which pollutant are you more likely to encounter in dangerous concentrations indoors rather than outdoors?

maroon

which color, as used in the Air Quality Index, warns that the level of a pollutant is hazardous, the most dangerous level?

O2

which component of the air is an element?

toxicity and exposure

what two factors are considered when determining the risk assessment for air pollutants?

coal burning power plants

currently, the primary source of sulfur dioxide emissions into the atmosphere is

O2 and N2

which two gases make up more than ninety-five percent of an inhaled breath?

parts per million (ppm)

a method of expressing low concentrations; 1 ppm is equivalent to 1 milligram

air pollutant

any airborne gas or particle that occurs at a concentration capable of harming living things or disrupting the functioning of the environment

products

the substances that are formed by the chemical change

chemical reaction

the process by which one or more substances change to produce one or more different substances

reactants

elements or compounds that enter into a chemical reaction

balanced chemical reaction

chemical equation with the same number of atoms of each element on both sides of the equation

air quality

a measure of the pollutants in the air that is used to express how clean or polluted the air is

atmosphere

the envelope of gases surrounding the earth or another planet

air quality directly affects

health and the environment, making its study crucial for understanding and addressing pollution

what contributes to the ozone hole

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

ozone in our atmosphere is important because it

absorbs some UV radiation

wavelength

distance between successive peaks in a wave

electromagnetic spectrum

the range of wavelengths or frequencies over which electromagnetic radiation extend

subatomic particles

protons, neutrons, electrons

valance electrons

electrons in the outermost shell

electronic waves

waves that transfer electric and magnetic energy through the vacuum of space

lewis structures

formulas in which atomic symbols represent nuclei and inner-shell electrons, dot-pairs or dashes between two atomic symbols represent electron pairs in covalent bonds, and dots adjacent to only one atomic symbol represent unshared electrons

uv radiation

damaging rays from the sun

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time

ozone layer

a layer in the stratosphere (at approximately twenty miles) that contains a concentration of ozone sufficient to block most ultraviolet radiation from the sun

which process plays the most important role in the greenhouse effect?

energy radiated by the earth is absorbed by the atmosphere

carbon cycle

movement of carbon through living organisms, the atmosphere, the sea, and the earth

what is the effect of the absorption of infrared energy on matter?

it increases the vibration of chemical bonds

climate change

a change in global or regional climate patterns

thermal radiation (IR)

a form of heat transfer where energy is emitted as electromagnetic waves due to the thermal motion of particles within a material

greenhouse gases

gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, water vapor, and ozone in the atmosphere which are involved in the greenhouse effect.

lewis dot structures

diagrams that show valence electrons as dots

molecule vibrations

a periodic motion of the atoms of a molecule relative to each other, such that the center of mass of the molecule remains unchanged

the energy that flows from a warmer body to a colder body is called

heat

in a refinery, the components of petroleum are separated by

fractional distillation

the process by which a solution is heated to its boiling point and the vapors are condensed and collected is known as

distillation

during petroleum refining, catalysts play an extremely important role during the

cracking and reforming processes

in an exothermic chemical reaction

heat is released as the reaction proceeds

a chemical reaction accompanied by a release of energy is called a/an

exothermic reaction

the first law of thermodynamics states that

energy is neither created nor destroyed

the energy of motion is called

kinetic energy

combustion is a chemical process in which a fuel combines with __________ to release energy and form products

oxygen

petroleum (crude oil) is a complex mixture of thousands of substances, the majority of which are

hydrocarbons

the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element

composed of subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons

atoms

a positively charged subatomic particle located in the nucleus of an atom

the number of protons in an atom determines its atomic number and defines the element

proton

a neutrally charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom

neutrons contribute to the atom's mass and help stabilize the nucleus by reducing repulsion between protons

neutron

a negatively charged subatomic particle that orbits the nucleus in electron shells or energy levels

involved in chemical bonding and determine many of an atom's chemical properties

electron

the dense, central part of an atom that contains protons and neutrons. It holds most of the atom's mass

nucleus

the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom

= protons + neutrons

example: a carbon atom with 6 protons and 6 neutrons has a mass number of 12

mass number

atoms of the same element (same number of protons) that have different numbers of neutrons, and therefore different mass numbers

example: Carbon-12 and Carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon

both have 6 protons, but Carbon-12 has 6 neutrons and Carbon-14 has 8

isotopes

the distance from the nucleus to the outermost electron of an atom

atomic radius

the ability of an atom to attract electrons in a chemical bond

electronegativity

the amount of energy required to remove the outermost electron from a neutral atom

ionization energy

a chemical bond formed when two atoms share one pair of electrons

represented by one line: H-H

single bond

a chemical bond formed when two atoms share two pairs of electrons

represented by two lines: O=O

double bond

a chemical bond formed when two atoms share three pairs of electrons

represented by three lines: N≡N

triple bond

formed between metals and nonmetals

electrons are transferred from one atom to another

properties: high melting/boiling points, solid at room temperature, conducts electricity when melted or dissolved in water

ionic compounds

formed between two nonmetals

electrons are shared between atoms

properties: lower melting/boiling points, can be solid, liquid, or gas, poor conductors of electricity

covalent compounds

diagrams that show the valence electrons of atoms and how they are shared or transferred in a molecule

used to represent bonding and lone pairs

lewis structures

occurs when more than one valid Lewis structure can be drawn for a molecule

the actual structure is a blend (resonance hybrid) of all possible structures.

example: ozone (O₃)O=O-O ↔ O-O=O

(the double bond shifts positions; the actual structure is a hybrid of both)

resonance

a chemical reaction in which a substance (usually containing carbon and hydrogen) reacts rapidly with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy (usually as heat and light)

general form: Hydrocarbon + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + energy

example: CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O + energy

a major source of energy in engines and power plants

combustion reaction

a reaction that releases energy to the surroundings, usually in the form of heat

• surroundings feel warmer

• example: combustion

exothermic reaction

a reaction that absorbs energy from the surroundings

• surroundings feel cooler

• example: photosynthesis

endothermic reaction

nonrenewable energy sources (such as coal, oil, and natural gas) formed from the remains of ancient organisms

• contain stored chemical energy that is released when burned

• drawbacks: Release carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas), contribute to air pollution and climate change

fossil fuels

renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, hydroelectric, geothermal, and biomass that do not rely on fossil fuels

• benefits: lower environmental impact, sustainable, and reduce greenhouse gas emissions

alternative energy

earth's water is unevenly distributed between saltwater and freshwater:

• 97%: saltwater (oceans)

• 3%: freshwater

  • of that 3%:

    • ~69% is frozen in glaciers and ice caps

    • ~30% is underground

    • <1% is accessible surface water (lakes, rivers)

water distribution

gases in the atmosphere that trap heat and contribute to the greenhouse effect

• major GHGs: carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (N₂O), water vapor, and ozone (O₃)

greenhouse gases

• increased GHGs from human activities (like burning fossil fuels) enhance the greenhouse effect, leading to global warming and climate change

• effects include: rising sea levels, melting glaciers, more extreme weather, and disruptions to ecosystems

environmental impact of greenhouse gases

a scale that measures how acidic or basic (alkaline) a substance is

• ranges from 0 to 14

  • pH < 7: acidic

  • pH = 7: neutral (e.g., pure water)

  • pH > 7: basic (alkaline)

• significance: pH affects chemical reactions, biological processes, and environmental health

  organisms often survive only within a narrow pH range

pH scale

• the pH scale is logarithmic, meaning each whole number change represents a tenfold change in hydrogen ion concentration

• formula:
  pH = –log[H⁺]
  (where [H⁺] is the concentration of hydrogen ions in moles per liter)

examples

• a solution with a pH of 3 has 10 times more hydrogen ions than a solution with a pH of 4

• a pH of 1 is 100 times more acidic than a pH of 3

relationship between pH and [H⁺] (hydrogen ion concentration

a large molecule made of repeating smaller units called monomers linked together by chemical bonds

• can be natural (e.g., DNA, proteins, cellulose) or synthetic (e.g., plastics, nylon)

polymers

polymers that soften when heated and harden when cooled, allowing them to be remolded

• properties: flexible, recyclable, lightweight

• uses: packaging, bottles, plastic bags, 3D printing

thermoplastics

polymers that harden permanently when heated and cannot be remelted

• uses: electrical insulation, adhesives, cookware handles

thermosetting plastics

A specific group of atoms in a molecule that determines the molecule’s reactivity and properties.

Functional Group	Structure	Common in	Properties
Hydroxyl	–OH	Alcohols	Polar, can form hydrogen bonds
Carboxyl	–COOH	Carboxylic acids	Acidic, can donate a hydrogen ion (H⁺)
Amino	–NH₂	Amines, amino acids	Basic, involved in peptide bonds
Ester	–COO–	Esters (fragrances, fats)	Sweet-smelling, used in flavors/scents
Carbonyl	C=O (in ketones/aldehydes)	Sugars, solvents	Involved in reactivity and solubility

functional group

the process of collecting and processing materials to make new products

• plastics ______ involves sorting, melting, and reforming thermoplastics.

• some polymers are difficult to recycle due to contamination or chemical structure.

recycling

• problems: Many synthetic polymers are non-biodegradable, contributing to plastic pollution

• solutions:

  • biodegradable plastics (break down naturally)

  • bio-based polymers (made from renewable sources)

  • improved recycling systems

  • reducing single-use plastics

sustainability in polymer use

a simple sugar (monosaccharide) and a primary energy source for the body

• used in cellular respiration to produce ATP (energy)

• found in carbohydrates such as fruits, bread, and pasta

glucose

a type of fat made from one glycerol molecule and three fatty acids

• long-term energy storage

• provide more energy per gram than carbohydrates or proteins

• found in oils, butter, and fatty foods

triglycerides

essential organic compounds needed in small amounts to support metabolism, immune function, and overall health

vitamins

dissolve in water; not stored in the body

excess amounts are excreted in urine

must be consumed regularly

examples: vitamin C, b-complex vitamins

water-soluble vitamins