Knowledge and Epistemology

What is epistemology?

Epistemology is the philosophical study of knowledge, focusing on what knowledge is and what counts as an appropriate source of it.

What are the main types of knowledge?

Propositional knowledge, know-how, and knowledge by acquaintance.

What is propositional knowledge?

Knowing that something is true (e.g., "Water boils at 100°C"). A proposition is a statement that has a meaning and is either true or false.

What is know-how?

Practical knowledge or skills (e.g., riding a bike).

What is knowledge by acquaintance?

Direct experience (e.g., knowing the taste of Vegemite).

What is propositional knowledge traditionally defined as?

Justified true belief.

What are internalist vs. externalist theories of justification?

Internalist theories are justification depending on internal factors (e.g., beliefs, thoughts, empiricism) and externalist theories are justification depending on external factors (e.g., social epistemology).

What is Descartes' foundationalism?

All knowledge must be based on things we know with absolute certainty. Uses the "method of doubt" to question unreliable sources like ‘sense experience’.

What is Descartes’ key insight from his skepticism?

"I think, therefore I am" (Cogito ergo sum) – he concludes that the act of doubting proves his own existence.

What are Descartes’ main ideas in foundationalism?

1. Adventitious: From external sources (sensations)

2. Factitious: Invented by the mind (combinations of adventitious ideas)

3. Innate: Inborn ideas (e.g., the idea of God)

What is the ontological argument for God’s existence, according to Descartes?

God, being a perfect being, must exist because non-existence would be a defect.

How does Descartes use God to rule out systematic deception?

A benevolent God would not systematically deceive us, hence we can trust our faculties to know the world.

What are Hume’s views on empiricism?

All knowledge is grounded in experience. There are no innate ideas; ideas are copies of sense-impressions.

What are Hume’s 'simple' and 'complex' ideas?

Simple ideas are directly from experience. Complex ideas are combinations of these simple ideas.

What is Hume’s problem of induction?

We cannot justify the assumption that the future will resemble the past without circular reasoning.

What does Hume say about causation?

Causation is just constant conjunction; we never observe necessary connection—only patterns.

What is naturalized epistemology?

An approach that explains knowledge through natural processes, especially those in the brain and perception.

What is reliabilism?

If a belief is produced by a reliable cognitive process, it is likely to be true and thus counts as knowledge.

What is the evolutionary justification for reliabilism?

Unreliable thinkers die out before reproducing; evolution favors reliable belief-forming processes.

What is a key objection to naturalized epistemology?

Brains can be unreliable, so explaining knowledge solely through natural processes may overlook errors.

What is social epistemology, according to Jennifer Lackey?

A response to the individualism of traditional epistemology. It emphasizes testimony and communal justification.

When is testimony a valid source of knowledge?

When the source is credible and the environment allows for challenges and correction.

How does social epistemology view the growth of knowledge?

Knowledge is built socially, and justified beliefs must withstand communal scrutiny. Diverse perspectives strengthen epistemic communities.