Personality Psychology Final

Behaviorism

The psychological study of human behavior

John Watson

Creator of Behaviorism

B.F. Skinner

Influential behavioral psychologist

What does behaviorism measure?

An individual’s response to an environmental stimulus: everyone is psychologically neutral until a stimulus appears

Classical Conditioning

A learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, resulting in a learned response.

Pavlov’s Dog Study

A famous experiment by Ivan Pavlov demonstrating classical conditioning, where dogs learned to associate the sound of a bell with food, leading to salivation.

Food aversions

Learned responses where an individual develops a strong dislike for a food after a negative experience, such as illness following its consumption. An example of classical conditioning.

Operant conditioning

A learning process where behaviors are modified by their consequences, such as rewards or punishments, leading to an increase or decrease in behavior frequency.

Shaping

The process of rewarding and reinforcing closer and closer approximations to a desired behavior in an attempt to achieve a complex behavior.

Observational Learning

A type of learning where individuals acquire new behaviors by watching and imitating others.

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment

A study conducted by Albert Bandura demonstrating that children can learn aggression through observation. In the experiment, children who watched an adult behave aggressively toward a Bobo doll were more likely to replicate that behavior.

Four Steps of Observational Learning

1. Attentional Processes

2. Retention Processes

3. Motor Reproduction Processes

4. Motivational Processes

Attentional Processes

1. Highly distinctive models

2. Modeling stimuli with affective valence, complexity, prevalence, and functional value

Retention Processes

1. Symbolic Encoding

2. Cognitive Organization

3. Symbolic and Motor Rehearsal

Motor Reproduction Processes

1. Physical capabilities

2. Availability of component resources

3. Self-observation of reproductions

4. Accuracy feedback

Motivational Processes

1. Vicarious external reinforcement

2. Self-reinforcement

Reciprocal Determinism

Personal, behavioral, and environmental factors interact and influence each other in determining an individual's behavior.

Jobs of a parent

1. Protect children

2. Socialization

Socialization

The process by which individuals acquire the values, beliefs, and behaviors of their culture through interaction with others, and discouraging behavior that undermines those values.

Instrumental Competence

A collection of characteristics that reflect the value of the American middle class.

Instrumental Competence Characteristics:

1. Honesty

2. Cooperation

3. Hard-working

4. Dependable

5. Rule-abiding

6. Autonomy

Authoritative-reciprocal parenting

A parenting style characterized by high responsiveness and high demands, fostering independence while providing support and guidance. Results in high instrumental competence in children

Types of Parenting Styles

1. Authoritative

2. Indulgent/permissive

3. Authoritarian

4. Neglectful

WEIRD Families

White, European, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic families that are often studied in psychological research, but may not represent diverse global populations.

Microsystem

The immediate environment in which a person operates, consisting of the settings and relationships that directly influence development, such as family and school.

Mesosystem

The interconnections between the different microsystems that influence a person's development, like the interaction between family and school.

Exosystem

The larger social system that indirectly influences a person's development, encompassing structures such as local government, community services, and parent workplaces.

Macrosystem

The overarching cultural and societal influences that shape an individual's development, including cultural values, laws, and customs.

Chronosystem

The dimension of time that considers the influence of life transitions and changes over the life course on an individual's development.

Social Class

Differences in social status, including economic standing and educational attainment which affect access to resources and opportunities for individuals.

Poverty

A socioeconomic state characterized by lack of financial resources, resulting in limited access to basic needs, education, and opportunities.

Tightness-looseness

The extent to which a society holds to strong rules and norms that it maintains cannot be violated.

Tight Cultures

Societies with strict social norms and low tolerance for deviation, emphasizing order and discipline.

Examples of Tight Cultures:

Egypt, Pakistan, Malaysia, Singapore, South Korea

Loose Culture

Societies characterized by weaker social norms and a high tolerance for deviation, promoting individual freedom and diversity.

Examples of Loose Cultures:

Persia, Ukraine, Netherlands, Brazil

Collectivist Culture

A culture that emphasizes group cohesion, communal goals, and interdependence over individualism, often prioritizing the needs of the group above personal desires.

Examples of Collectivist Cultures:

Southeast Asian countries (China, Japan, Korea)

Individualist Culture

A culture that values personal autonomy, individual rights, and self-expression over group interests, encouraging people to prioritize their own goals and desires.

Examples of Individualist Cultures

WEIRD societies (USA, Canada, Australia, Western Europe)

Farming

Linked to collectivism

Rice farming

Promotes more collectivist values due to the need for communal efforts in planting and harvesting.

Wheat farming

Promotes more individualist values due to reliance on mechanization and personal initiative in production.

Cultural modernity

The economic, political, and social systems created by the Industrial Revolution

Gemeinschaft (Community)

Social relations and economy are based around family.

Gesellschaft (Society)

Social relations and economy are based on individualism and formal institutions, such as schools.

As industrialism increases…

Gemeinschaft decreases.

Bicultural Identity Integration

The process by which individuals identify with two distinct cultures and integrate the values, practices, and perspectives from both into a coherent identity.

Generativity

An adult’s concern for/commitment to promoting the well-being of future generations

Stagnation

When adults feel stuck or stymied, and cannot generate anything useful.

What is the most common expression of generativity?

Parenting

Generativity and Big Five Traits

High C, E, A, and possibly O

Low N

Loyola Generativity Scale

A measurement tool used to assess generativity, focusing on an individual's concern for the next generation and the desire to contribute positively to society. Those who score higher on generativity and productively involved in a wide range of endeavors and have higher levels of well-being

Generative Behavior Checklist

A tool designed to evaluate specific behaviors associated with generativity, including actions promoting the welfare of future generations and community involvement.

Redemption Sequence

A sequence in a narrative in which a protagonist goes from suffering to enhancement. Highly generative adults have these.

Redemptive Self

A narrative identity characterized by the ability to reframe past experiences, particularly suffering, in a way that emphasizes personal growth and positive future outcomes.

Five Key Themes of Redemptive Self

1. Early Advantage

2. Sensitivity to Suffering of Others

3. Moral Depth and Steadfastness

4. Redemption Sequences

5. Future Growth and Prosocial Engagement

Early Advantage

Refers to positive early life experiences or circumstances that give individuals a head start in development and opportunities, contributing to their eventual success and resilience.

Sensitivity to the Suffering of Others

The tendency to be aware of and empathetic toward the pain and struggles of others, often motivating altruistic behavior and social support.

Moral Depth and Steadfastness

The quality of exhibiting strong moral principles and unwavering commitment to values, often demonstrated through integrity and reliability in difficult situations.

Future Growth and Prosocial Engagement

Refers to envisioning or setting forth goals, plans, or hopes that involve contributing to the well-being of others beyond family.

America’s Favorite Redemptive Stories

1. Sin to Salvation

2. Rags to Riches

3. Slavery to Freedom

Master Cultural Narrative

A broad collective story that details how to live a good life in a particular culture, especially in cases of cultural assimilation.

Five Defining Features of a Master Culture Narrative

1. Utility

2. Ubiquity

3. Invisibility

4. Compulsory Nature

5. Rigidity

Counter Narrative

A story that people tell and live that goes against the dominant master culture narratives. Can motivate political resistance and highlight other ways to sustain commitment and well-being for those disenfranchised by the current power structure in society.

Elliot Jacques - Death and the Midlife Crisis

A theory proposed by Elliot Jacques suggesting that the awareness of mortality at midlife (around age 40) can lead to a crisis, prompting individuals to reassess their life goals and achievements.

Midlife Crisis

A shift when midlife adults confront their sense of mortality and realize their time is running out. Can cause increasing divorce rates.

Early Adult Transition

According to Levinson, a transition in which a young man assumes some degree of independence from the parents, gaining responsibilities in the adult world.

Formation of Dreams for the Future

A process identified by Levinson during which individuals begin to envision their future goals and aspirations, guiding their choices and direction in life.

Development of Relationship with Mentor

According to Levinson, a time during early adulthood in which a slightly older and more experienced man takes a young man under his wing and teaches him how to make his way around the world.

Age 30 Transition

A period identified by Levinson where individuals reassess their life goals and commitments made during their 20s, often leading to significant changes in career, relationships, or personal aspirations.

Settling Down

According to Levinson, a phase after the Age 30 Transition where individuals establish deeper commitments in their relationships and careers, often leading to stability and a sense of belonging.

Becoming One’s Own Man (BOOM)

A stage in early adulthood described by Levinson where individuals strive for autonomy and self-definition, often leading to the establishment of personal values and goals.

Midlife Transition

According to Levinson, a period in which marital satisfaction, job performance, and enjoyment of pursuits decline.

Age 50 Transition

A phase in midlife described by Levinson, where individuals reflect on their life achievements and make adjustments to their priorities, often leading to a review of personal goals and relationships. Also known as a Midlife Crisis

Culmination

A period very similar to the Settling Down period, characterized by stability and the establishment of a secure life structure.

Late Adulthood Transition

According to Levinson, a stage in which a man gives up form authority or power, typically in the workplace and reflects on his life.

Life Course Perspective

A theoretical framework that examines how individuals' lives are shaped by historical, social, and cultural contexts throughout their lifespan, addressing transitions and trajectories. Emphasizes social time, social roles and relationships, and human agency and variability in psychosocial development.

Social Clock

A cultural timetable that dictates the expected timing of life events, such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement, influencing individual behavior and life choices.

Why do life stories change?

Either people’s lives change, or people change their understandings of themselves.

Ruthellen Josselon - Case Study of Maria

A case study that demonstrates the changes in one women’s understanding of a romantic relationship over time.

20s - Wanted to marry Jack, but did not end up doing that

40s - Viewed Jack as an easy way out, and wanted to focus on security rather than love.

50s - Missed her chemistry with Jack and the independence she felt

Positivity Effect

The tendency for older adults to prioritize positive information and experiences over negative ones, leading to a more optimistic outlook on life.

Ego Integrity

A developmental stage in late adulthood where individuals reflect on their life and either achieve a sense of fulfillment and acceptance of their life experiences, or experience regret and dissatisfaction.

Life Review

A process in which individuals reflect on their life experiences, often occurring in late adulthood, to gain a sense of meaning and evaluate their past, and prepare to meet death.

Despair

A feeling of hopelessness and disappointment that may occur when individuals in late adulthood reflect on their lives and confront regrets or unfulfilled dreams, knowing it is too late to change anything for the better.

Expressive Writing Method

A therapeutic technique that involves writing about thoughts and feelings related to stressful or traumatic experiences, aimed at promoting emotional healing and well-being.

Narrative Therapy

A therapeutic approach that uses storytelling and personal narrative to help individuals reframe their experiences and promote healing.

Personality Disorder

A mental health condition characterized by enduring patterns of behavior, cognition, and inner experience that deviate markedly from cultural expectations, leading to distress or impairment.

Cluster A PDs - Odd/Eccentric

1. Schizoid

2. Schizotypal

3. Paranoid

Schizoid PD

A personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of detachment from social relationships and a restricted range of emotional expression in interpersonal settings.

Schizotypal PD

A personality disorder marked by social isolation, eccentric behaviors, and cognitive or perceptual distortions, often leading to significant interpersonal difficulties. 

Cluster B PDs - Erratic/Impulsive

1. Antisocial

2. Borderline

3. Histrionic

4. Narcissistic

Cluster C PDs - Anxious

1. Dependent

2. Avoidant

3. Obsessive-Compulsive

Antisocial PD

A personality disorder characterized by a disregard for the rights of others, often involving deceit, manipulation, and a lack of remorse. Individuals may exhibit impulsive behaviors and a tendency toward aggressive actions.

Borderline PD

A personality disorder marked by instability in moods, behavior, self-image, and interpersonal relationships. Individuals often experience intense episodes of anger, depression, and anxiety, leading to impulsive actions.

Histrionic PD

A personality disorder characterized by excessive emotionality and attention-seeking behavior. Individuals often display dramatic, theatrical expressions of emotions and may be easily influenced by others.

Narcissistic PD

A personality disorder marked by an inflated sense of self-importance, a deep need for admiration, and a lack of empathy for others. Individuals may exploit relationships for personal gain and often demonstrate arrogant or haughty behaviors.

Dependent PD

A personality disorder characterized by an excessive need to be taken care of, leading to submissive and clinging behaviors. Individuals often have difficulty making decisions without advice and fear separation from attachment figures.

Avoidant PD

A personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation. Individuals may avoid social interactions and tend to feel inadequate.

Obsessive-Compulsive PD

A personality disorder marked by a preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control. Individuals may be excessively focused on rules, details, and schedules, often at the expense of flexibility and efficiency. Different than OCD.