[BA 101] First Long Examination

GROUP

Two or more people who rely on one another to accomplish specific goals

FORMAL GROUPS

work groups defined by organization’s structure and have designated work assignments and specific tasks to accomplish organizational goals

INFORMAL GROUPS

social groups formed by personal relationships and shared interests, rather than assigned roles or tasks

TEAM

• SPECIALIZED group ; members assume specific roles, are performance oriented and are focused on goal accomplishment

• Groups whose members work intensely on a specific, common goal using their positive synergy, individual and mutual accountability, and complementary skills

COMMAND GROUPS

Groups determined by organization chart and composed of people who report directly to a given manager

TASK GROUPS

Groups brought together to complete a specific job task ; existence often temporary

CROSS-FUNCTIONAL TEAMS

Groups that bring together knowledge and skills of individuals from various work areas or groups whose members have been trained to do each others’ jobs

SELF-MANAGED TEAMS

Groups essentially independent and that, in addition to their own tasks, take on traditional managerial responsibilities (hiring, planning, scheduling, and evaluating performance)

BRUCE TUCKMAN MODEL (1965)

model used on visualizing how groups develop through FIVE stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.

FORMING

• Getting to know each other

• Stage where team members get acquainted and establish initial ground rules for collaboration.

• TWO PHASES:

  • FIRST: Joining

  • SECOND: Defining group purpose, structure, and leadership

• Testing the waters to determine what types of behavior are acceptable

• Complete when they begin to think of themselves as part of a group

STORMING

• Dealing with tensions and defining group tasks

• INTRAGROUP CONFLICT: what the group should be doing, who controls it

• Hierarchy of leadership and agreement of group direction

NORMING

• Building relationships and working together ; close relationships develop and the group becomes cohesive

• Strong sense of group identity and camaraderie

• Complete when group structure solidifies, group has assimilated a common set of expectations (or norms) regarding member behavior [establishing GROUP RULES]

PERFORMING

• Maturation in relationships and task performance

• Structure is in place and accepted by the group members

• Last stage for PERMANENT work groups

ADJOURNING

• Disbanding and celebrating accomplishments ; wrapping up

GROUP MEMBER RESOURCES

• Resources each individual brings to the group

• INTERPERSONAL SKILLS consistently emerge as important for high performance

GROUP STRUCTURE

• Groups have internal structure that shapes member behavior and influences group performance

SEVEN ASPECTS OF GROUP STRUCTURE

• Roles

• Norms

• Conformity

• Status

• Size

• Cohesiveness

• Diversity

ROLES

Set of expected behaviors

ROLE EXPECTATIONS

How OTHERS expect someone should act in a certain situation

ROLE PERCEPTION

Our OWN VIEW of how we should act in a certain situation

INTRA-ROLE CONFLICT

Situation with DIVERGENT ROLE EXPECTATIONS in the same role (ex. human resources management — friend or foe?)

INTER-ROLE CONFLICT

OPPOSING DEMANDS of the same person while performing DIFFERENT ROLES (e.g. work-life balance — employee vs family person ; activists that then work in Quezon Hall)

NORMS

• Acceptable standards of behavior (unwritten rules of groups)

• Those who do not conform often feel the pressure to do so (influence)

• Sometimes, working in groups tolerate deviant actions because of ANONYMITY (false sense of security)

CULTURE

system of norms

CONFORMITY

• Change to one’s behavior to accommodate group norms

• Powerful force ; group members often want to be seen as part of the group than being visibly different

• Agree than be disruptive

• Positive and negative group NORMS influence organizational OUTCOMES because of CONFORMITY

GROUPTHINK

seems to occur when group members hold a positive group image that they want to protect and when the group perceives a collective threat to this positive image (saying or doing the same thing as the others despite thinking differently)

REFERENCE GROUPS

People tend to conform to groups they respect / like / accept

STATUS

• Relative position within a group

• Prestige grading, position, or rank within a group

• Can motivate or bring down people when they see disparity between what they perceive as their status and what others see it as it is

• High-status members can MORE READILY  DEVIATE from norms (non-conformity)

• High-status members are MORE INTERACTIVE

• Status INEQUITY (and incongruence) leads to imbalances / dysfunction in a group

STATUS CHARACTERISTICS THEORY

Power, contribution to group goals, and individual characteristics influence member status

SIZE

• LARGER groups are more prone to SOCIAL LOAFING

• LARGER GROUPS also face problems regarding SPAN OF CONTROL (harder to manage)

• LARGE GROUPS good for getting diverse outputs, finding facts

• SMALLER GROUPS are better at doing something productive with said facts

SOCIAL LOAFING

• reduction of effort due to the nature of group effort

• Individual expends less effort

• More apparent in INDIVIDUALISTIC cultures ; less of an issue in COLLECTIVIST cultures

• GROUP NORMS regarding work ethic REDUCES social loafing

SOCIAL LOAFING can be lessened by:

• IDENTIFIABILITY

• ACCOUNTABILITY

• MEMBER OF PUBLIC COMMITMENT

COHESIVENESS

• Attraction to the group and its members ; degree to which members are attracted to a group and share a group’s goals

• Not always a good thing

• has a positive effect on performance ONLY if the group possesses positive work norms

• generally promotes group EFFECTIVENESS and VIABILITY

• TIME TOGETHER helps increase it

• a PRODUCT OF SUCCESS ; failure kills cohesion (blame game)

DIVERSITY

• COSTS: 

  • Increases group conflict in EARLY STAGES of group dynamics

  • Difficulty in OBTAINING CONSENSUS

  • FACTIONS may emerge

• BENEFITS:

  • More ways to ACHIEVE TASK

  • More CREATIVE POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS / VIEWS

  • Cues people to be more OPEN-MINDED

optimal number of members for making decisions

five ; to lesser extent, seven

BRAINSTORMING

Idea-generating process that encourages alternatives while withholding criticism

NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE (NGT)

• GENERATION → DISCUSSION → VOTATION

• Group members are presenting with a PROBLEM ; each members independently writes down his or her ideas on the problem, then presents to the group

• No discussion until all has been presented

DEVIL’S ADVOCATE

• Challenges the team

• One is in opposition to generate more ideas

CONFLICT

• Perceived incompatible differences resulting in some form of INTERFERENCE or OPPOSITION

TRADITIONAL VIEW OF CONFLICT

views conflict as something that must be avoided ; indicates a problem

HUMAN RELATIONS VIEW OF CONFLICT

• Conflict is natural and inevitable outcome in any group, need not to be negative

• Potential to be positive in contributing to performance

INTERACTIONIST VIEW OF CONFLICT

Not only can conflict be positive, it is ABSOLUTELY NECESSARY

FUNCTIONAL CONFLICTS

conflicts that are constructive, support goals, and improve performance

DYSFUNCTIONAL CONFLICTS

conflicts that are destructive and prevent group from achieving goals

TASK CONFLICTS

• conflicts that relate to content and goals of work

• Low-to-moderate stimulates discussion on ideas

RELATIONSHIP CONFLICTS

• conflicts on interpersonal relationships

• Almost always dysfunctional

PROCESS CONFLICTS

• conflict on how work gets done

• Low levels are functional (minimal)

AVOIDANCE

resolving conflicts by withdrawing from or suppressing them (UNCOOPERATIVE, UNASSERTIVE)

ACCOMMODATION

resolving conflicts by placing another’s needs and concerns above your own (COOPERATIVE, UNASSERTIVE)

FORCING

resolving conflicts by satisfying one’s own needs at the expense of another’s (UNCOOPERATIVE, ASSERTIVE)

COMPROMISE

resolving conflicts by each party giving up something of value (COOPERATIVE, MID-ASSERTIVE)

COLLABORATION

resolving conflicts by seeking an advantageous solution for all parties (COOPERATIVE - ASSERTIVE)

PROBLEM-SOLVING TEAMS

• Teams from same department or functional area involved in efforts to improve work activities or to solve specific problems

• Rarely given authority to implement any of their suggested actions

• Did not go far enough in getting employees involved in work-related decisions and processes

SELF-MANAGED WORK TEAM

• Formal group of employees who operate without a manager and are responsible for a complete work process or segment

• Getting the work done and managing themselves, taking action on problems

• Authority to make and implement decisions, finish projects, and address problems

VIRTUAL TEAM

• Uses technology to link physically dispersed members in order to achieve common goal

• Lack normal face-to-face discussions

CLEAR GOALS

• Clear understanding of the goal to be achieved

• Members are committed to team goals, know what they’re expected to accomplish, understand how they will work together to achieve these goals

RELEVANT SKILLS

Competent individuals who have the necessary TECHNICAL and INTERPERSONAL skills to achieve the desired goals while working well together

MUTUAL TRUST

• Members believe in each other’s ability, character, and integrity

• Trust is fragile ; maintaining trust requires careful attention by managers

UNIFIED COMMITMENT

• Dedication to team goals and willingness to expend extraordinary amounts of energy to achieve them

• Willing to do whatever it takes for team to succeed

GOOD COMMUNICATION

• Members convey messages, verbally and nonverbally, between each other in ways that are readily and clearly understood

• Feedback helps guide team members and correct misunderstandings

NEGOTIATING SKILLS

• Continually making adjustments to whom does what

• Members need to be able to confront and reconcile differences

APPROPRIATE LEADERSHIP

• Effective leaders are important ; act as coaches and facilitators

• Help guide and support the team but don’t control it

• Can motivate team to follow them through the most difficult situations

INTERNAL SUPPORT AND EXTERNAL SUPPORT

• Supportive climate

• INTERNAL: sound infrastructure (proper training, clear and reasonable measurement system to evaluate performance, incentive program that recognizes and rewards team activities, supportive human resource system)

• EXTERNAL: managers providing the team with resources needed to get the job done

SOCIAL NETWORK STRUCTURE

Patterns of informal connections among individuals within a group

HIGH-PERFORMANCE WORK PRACTICES

Work practices that lead to both high individual and high organizational performances

HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING

process by which managers ensure they have right number and kinds of capable people in the right places and at the right times

CURRENT ASSESSMENT

Inventorying current employees

JOB ANALYSIS

Assessment that defines a job and the behaviors necessary to perform it

JOB DESCRIPTION / JOB PROFILE

Written statement describing a job (job content, environment, conditions of employment)

• Title

• Purpose - why does it exist

• Scope - how many to manage

• Duties

JOB SPECIFICATION / REQUIREMENTS / THE PERSON PROFILE

• States minimum qualifications that a person must possess to successfully perform a given job

• Build upon the information in the job profile and to decide what personal attributes are essential and desirable for good job performance

• Anything that makes the person successful in the role you have just defined

RECRUITMENT

• Why would these people want to join you (money, prestige, same values, experience)

• locating, identifying, and attracting capable applicants

SOURCES OF APPLICANTS

• INTERNET, EMPLOYEE REFERRALS, COMPANY WEBSITE, COLLEGE RECRUITING, PROFESSIONAL RECRUITING ORGANIZATIONS

• INTERNALLY or EXTERNALLY

DECRUITMENT

reducing organization workforce (e.g. if there is a surplus) ; getting rid of human capital

FIRING

permanent involuntary termination

LAYOFFS / DOWNSIZING

temporary involuntary termination ; may last only a few days or extend to years

ATTRITION

not filling openings created by voluntary resignations or normal retirements

TRANSFERS

moving employees either laterally or downward ; usually does not reduce costs but can reduce intra organizational supply-demand imbalance

REDUCED WORKWEEKS

having employees work fewer hours per week, share jobs, or perform jobs on part-time basis

EARLY RETIREMENTS

providing incentives to older and more senior employees for retiring before their normal retirement date

JOB SHARING

sharing one full-time position

SELECTION

Process of sifting out the people that are not the best fit for what the organization is looking for ; determining who is best qualified for the job

APPLICATION FORMS

1. Almost universally used

2. Most useful for gathering information

3. Can predict job performance but not easy to create one that does

WRITTEN TESTS

1. Must be job related

2. Include intelligence, aptitude, ability, personality, and interest tests

3. Popular

4. Relatively good predictor for supervisory positions

PERFORMANCE-SIMULATION TESTS

1. Use actual job behaviors

2. WORK SAMPLING

   • Test applicants on tasks associated with that job ; appropriate for routine or standardized works

3. ASSESSMENT CENTER

   • Simulate jobs ; appropriate for evaluating managerial potential

INTERVIEWS

1. Almost universally used

2. Must know what can and cannot be asked

3. Can be useful for managerial positions

BACKGROUND INVESTIGATIONS

1. Used for verifying application data — valuable source of information

2. Used for verifying reference checks — not a valuable source of information

PHYSICAL EXAMINATIONS

1. Are for jobs that have certain physical requirements

2. Mostly used for insurance purposes

REALISTIC JOB PREVIEWS (RJP)

• Includes both positive and negative information about the job and the company

• Increases employee job satisfaction and reduces turnover

• For employees to better cope with the frustrating elements than applicants who receive only inflated information

ASSIGNMENT

→ PERSON JOB FIT

• there are some jobs where no matter how hard working you are, you simply don’t fit

• Being assigned in a role that fits who you are

DEVELOPMENT

• There are still areas that are in need of training

• It does not end by simply being a good fit, you have to be competent

ORIENTATION

Introduction to his or her job in the organization

WORK UNIT ORIENTATION

• familiarizes employee with goals of the work unit, clarifies how his or her job contributes to the unit’s goals, and includes an introduction to his or her new coworkers

ORGANIZATION ORIENTATION

informs new employee about company goals, history, philosophy, procedures and rule

ON-THE-JOB

employees learn how to do tasks simply by performing them, usually after an initial introduction to the task

JOB ROTATION

employees work at different jobs in a particular area, getting exposure to a variety of tasks

EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES

participate in role-playing, simulations, or other face-to-face trainings

CLASSROOM LECTURES

employees attend lectures designed to convey specific information

Who performs staffing?

Human Resources Department

• HUMAN RESOURCE PLANNING → DECRUITMENT

• RECRUITMENT

• SELECTION

identify and select competent employees

• ORIENTATION

• TRAINING

provide employees with up-to-date skills and knowledge